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Expressions

Every AST node in SQLGlot is represented by a subclass of Expression.

This module contains the implementation of all supported Expression types. Additionally, it exposes a number of helper functions, which are mainly used to programmatically build SQL expressions, such as sqlglot.expressions.select.


   1"""
   2## Expressions
   3
   4Every AST node in SQLGlot is represented by a subclass of `Expression`.
   5
   6This module contains the implementation of all supported `Expression` types. Additionally,
   7it exposes a number of helper functions, which are mainly used to programmatically build
   8SQL expressions, such as `sqlglot.expressions.select`.
   9
  10----
  11"""
  12
  13from __future__ import annotations
  14
  15import datetime
  16import math
  17import numbers
  18import re
  19import typing as t
  20from collections import deque
  21from copy import deepcopy
  22from enum import auto
  23
  24from sqlglot.errors import ParseError
  25from sqlglot.helper import (
  26    AutoName,
  27    camel_to_snake_case,
  28    ensure_collection,
  29    ensure_list,
  30    seq_get,
  31    split_num_words,
  32    subclasses,
  33)
  34from sqlglot.tokens import Token
  35
  36if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  37    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  38
  39E = t.TypeVar("E", bound="Expression")
  40
  41
  42class _Expression(type):
  43    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  44        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  45
  46        # When an Expression class is created, its key is automatically set to be
  47        # the lowercase version of the class' name.
  48        klass.key = clsname.lower()
  49
  50        # This is so that docstrings are not inherited in pdoc
  51        klass.__doc__ = klass.__doc__ or ""
  52
  53        return klass
  54
  55
  56class Expression(metaclass=_Expression):
  57    """
  58    The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary
  59    context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression
  60    is optional or not.
  61
  62    Attributes:
  63        key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing
  64            and representing expressions as strings.
  65        arg_types: determines what arguments (child nodes) are supported by an expression. It
  66            maps arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
  67
  68    Example:
  69        >>> class Foo(Expression):
  70        ...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
  71
  72        The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called
  73        "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".
  74
  75    Args:
  76        args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
  77        parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
  78        arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression
  79            uses to refer to it.
  80        comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in
  81            order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
  82        _type: the `sqlglot.expressions.DataType` type of an expression. This is inferred by the
  83            optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
  84    """
  85
  86    key = "expression"
  87    arg_types = {"this": True}
  88    __slots__ = ("args", "parent", "arg_key", "comments", "_type", "_meta", "_hash")
  89
  90    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
  91        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
  92        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
  93        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
  94        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
  95        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
  96        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
  97        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
  98
  99        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
 100            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 101
 102    def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
 103        return type(self) is type(other) and hash(self) == hash(other)
 104
 105    @property
 106    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
 107        args = (self.args.get(k) for k in self.arg_types)
 108
 109        return tuple(
 110            (tuple(_norm_arg(a) for a in arg) if arg else None)
 111            if type(arg) is list
 112            else (_norm_arg(arg) if arg is not None and arg is not False else None)
 113            for arg in args
 114        )
 115
 116    def __hash__(self) -> int:
 117        if self._hash is not None:
 118            return self._hash
 119
 120        return hash((self.__class__, self.hashable_args))
 121
 122    @property
 123    def this(self):
 124        """
 125        Retrieves the argument with key "this".
 126        """
 127        return self.args.get("this")
 128
 129    @property
 130    def expression(self):
 131        """
 132        Retrieves the argument with key "expression".
 133        """
 134        return self.args.get("expression")
 135
 136    @property
 137    def expressions(self):
 138        """
 139        Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".
 140        """
 141        return self.args.get("expressions") or []
 142
 143    def text(self, key) -> str:
 144        """
 145        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
 146        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
 147        """
 148        field = self.args.get(key)
 149        if isinstance(field, str):
 150            return field
 151        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
 152            return field.this
 153        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
 154            return field.name
 155        return ""
 156
 157    @property
 158    def is_string(self) -> bool:
 159        """
 160        Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.
 161        """
 162        return isinstance(self, Literal) and self.args["is_string"]
 163
 164    @property
 165    def is_number(self) -> bool:
 166        """
 167        Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.
 168        """
 169        return isinstance(self, Literal) and not self.args["is_string"]
 170
 171    @property
 172    def is_int(self) -> bool:
 173        """
 174        Checks whether a Literal expression is an integer.
 175        """
 176        if self.is_number:
 177            try:
 178                int(self.name)
 179                return True
 180            except ValueError:
 181                pass
 182        return False
 183
 184    @property
 185    def is_star(self) -> bool:
 186        """Checks whether an expression is a star."""
 187        return isinstance(self, Star) or (isinstance(self, Column) and isinstance(self.this, Star))
 188
 189    @property
 190    def alias(self) -> str:
 191        """
 192        Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.
 193        """
 194        if isinstance(self.args.get("alias"), TableAlias):
 195            return self.args["alias"].name
 196        return self.text("alias")
 197
 198    @property
 199    def name(self) -> str:
 200        return self.text("this")
 201
 202    @property
 203    def alias_or_name(self):
 204        return self.alias or self.name
 205
 206    @property
 207    def output_name(self):
 208        """
 209        Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.
 210
 211        If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.
 212
 213        Example:
 214            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
 215            >>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
 216            'a'
 217            >>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
 218            'c'
 219            >>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
 220            ''
 221        """
 222        return ""
 223
 224    @property
 225    def type(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
 226        return self._type
 227
 228    @type.setter
 229    def type(self, dtype: t.Optional[DataType | DataType.Type | str]) -> None:
 230        if dtype and not isinstance(dtype, DataType):
 231            dtype = DataType.build(dtype)
 232        self._type = dtype  # type: ignore
 233
 234    @property
 235    def meta(self) -> t.Dict[str, t.Any]:
 236        if self._meta is None:
 237            self._meta = {}
 238        return self._meta
 239
 240    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
 241        copy = self.__class__(**deepcopy(self.args))
 242        if self.comments is not None:
 243            copy.comments = deepcopy(self.comments)
 244
 245        if self._type is not None:
 246            copy._type = self._type.copy()
 247
 248        if self._meta is not None:
 249            copy._meta = deepcopy(self._meta)
 250
 251        return copy
 252
 253    def copy(self):
 254        """
 255        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
 256        """
 257        new = deepcopy(self)
 258        new.parent = self.parent
 259        return new
 260
 261    def append(self, arg_key, value):
 262        """
 263        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
 264
 265        Args:
 266            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
 267            value (Any): value to append to the list
 268        """
 269        if not isinstance(self.args.get(arg_key), list):
 270            self.args[arg_key] = []
 271        self.args[arg_key].append(value)
 272        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 273
 274    def set(self, arg_key, value):
 275        """
 276        Sets `arg_key` to `value`.
 277
 278        Args:
 279            arg_key (str): name of the expression arg.
 280            value: value to set the arg to.
 281        """
 282        self.args[arg_key] = value
 283        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 284
 285    def _set_parent(self, arg_key, value):
 286        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 287            value.parent = self
 288            value.arg_key = arg_key
 289        elif type(value) is list:
 290            for v in value:
 291                if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 292                    v.parent = self
 293                    v.arg_key = arg_key
 294
 295    @property
 296    def depth(self):
 297        """
 298        Returns the depth of this tree.
 299        """
 300        if self.parent:
 301            return self.parent.depth + 1
 302        return 0
 303
 304    def iter_expressions(self) -> t.Iterator[t.Tuple[str, Expression]]:
 305        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
 306        for k, vs in self.args.items():
 307            if type(vs) is list:
 308                for v in vs:
 309                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 310                        yield k, v
 311            else:
 312                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 313                    yield k, vs
 314
 315    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs=True) -> E | None:
 316        """
 317        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
 318        the specified types.
 319
 320        Args:
 321            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 322
 323        Returns:
 324            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
 325        """
 326        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)
 327
 328    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs=True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
 329        """
 330        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
 331        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
 332
 333        Args:
 334            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 335
 336        Returns:
 337            The generator object.
 338        """
 339        for expression, *_ in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
 340            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
 341                yield expression
 342
 343    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> E | None:
 344        """
 345        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
 346
 347        Args:
 348            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 349
 350        Returns:
 351            The parent node.
 352        """
 353        ancestor = self.parent
 354        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
 355            ancestor = ancestor.parent
 356        return t.cast(E, ancestor)
 357
 358    @property
 359    def parent_select(self):
 360        """
 361        Returns the parent select statement.
 362        """
 363        return self.find_ancestor(Select)
 364
 365    @property
 366    def same_parent(self):
 367        """Returns if the parent is the same class as itself."""
 368        return type(self.parent) is self.__class__
 369
 370    def root(self) -> Expression:
 371        """
 372        Returns the root expression of this tree.
 373        """
 374        expression = self
 375        while expression.parent:
 376            expression = expression.parent
 377        return expression
 378
 379    def walk(self, bfs=True, prune=None):
 380        """
 381        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
 382
 383        Args:
 384            bfs (bool): if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
 385                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
 386            prune ((node, parent, arg_key) -> bool): callable that returns True if
 387                the generator should stop traversing this branch of the tree.
 388
 389        Returns:
 390            the generator object.
 391        """
 392        if bfs:
 393            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
 394        else:
 395            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)
 396
 397    def dfs(self, parent=None, key=None, prune=None):
 398        """
 399        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 400        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
 401
 402        Returns:
 403            The generator object.
 404        """
 405        parent = parent or self.parent
 406        yield self, parent, key
 407        if prune and prune(self, parent, key):
 408            return
 409
 410        for k, v in self.iter_expressions():
 411            yield from v.dfs(self, k, prune)
 412
 413    def bfs(self, prune=None):
 414        """
 415        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 416        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
 417
 418        Returns:
 419            The generator object.
 420        """
 421        queue = deque([(self, self.parent, None)])
 422
 423        while queue:
 424            item, parent, key = queue.popleft()
 425
 426            yield item, parent, key
 427            if prune and prune(item, parent, key):
 428                continue
 429
 430            for k, v in item.iter_expressions():
 431                queue.append((v, item, k))
 432
 433    def unnest(self):
 434        """
 435        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
 436        """
 437        expression = self
 438        while type(expression) is Paren:
 439            expression = expression.this
 440        return expression
 441
 442    def unalias(self):
 443        """
 444        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
 445        """
 446        if isinstance(self, Alias):
 447            return self.this
 448        return self
 449
 450    def unnest_operands(self):
 451        """
 452        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
 453        """
 454        return tuple(arg.unnest() for _, arg in self.iter_expressions())
 455
 456    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
 457        """
 458        Returns a generator which yields child nodes who's parents are the same class.
 459
 460        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
 461        """
 462        for node, _, _ in self.dfs(prune=lambda n, p, *_: p and not type(n) is self.__class__):
 463            if not type(node) is self.__class__:
 464                yield node.unnest() if unnest else node
 465
 466    def __str__(self):
 467        return self.sql()
 468
 469    def __repr__(self):
 470        return self._to_s()
 471
 472    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
 473        """
 474        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
 475
 476        Args:
 477            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
 478            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
 479
 480        Returns:
 481            The SQL string.
 482        """
 483        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 484
 485        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().generate(self, **opts)
 486
 487    def _to_s(self, hide_missing: bool = True, level: int = 0) -> str:
 488        indent = "" if not level else "\n"
 489        indent += "".join(["  "] * level)
 490        left = f"({self.key.upper()} "
 491
 492        args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {
 493            k: ", ".join(
 494                v._to_s(hide_missing=hide_missing, level=level + 1)
 495                if hasattr(v, "_to_s")
 496                else str(v)
 497                for v in ensure_list(vs)
 498                if v is not None
 499            )
 500            for k, vs in self.args.items()
 501        }
 502        args["comments"] = self.comments
 503        args["type"] = self.type
 504        args = {k: v for k, v in args.items() if v or not hide_missing}
 505
 506        right = ", ".join(f"{k}: {v}" for k, v in args.items())
 507        right += ")"
 508
 509        return indent + left + right
 510
 511    def transform(self, fun, *args, copy=True, **kwargs):
 512        """
 513        Recursively visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
 514        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
 515
 516        Args:
 517            fun (function): a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
 518                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
 519                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
 520            copy (bool): if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
 521                modified in place.
 522
 523        Returns:
 524            The transformed tree.
 525        """
 526        node = self.copy() if copy else self
 527        new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
 528
 529        if new_node is None or not isinstance(new_node, Expression):
 530            return new_node
 531        if new_node is not node:
 532            new_node.parent = node.parent
 533            return new_node
 534
 535        replace_children(new_node, lambda child: child.transform(fun, *args, copy=False, **kwargs))
 536        return new_node
 537
 538    def replace(self, expression):
 539        """
 540        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
 541
 542        For example::
 543
 544            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
 545            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(Column(this="y"))
 546            (COLUMN this: y)
 547            >>> tree.sql()
 548            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
 549
 550        Args:
 551            expression (Expression|None): new node
 552
 553        Returns:
 554            The new expression or expressions.
 555        """
 556        if not self.parent:
 557            return expression
 558
 559        parent = self.parent
 560        self.parent = None
 561
 562        replace_children(parent, lambda child: expression if child is self else child)
 563        return expression
 564
 565    def pop(self):
 566        """
 567        Remove this expression from its AST.
 568
 569        Returns:
 570            The popped expression.
 571        """
 572        self.replace(None)
 573        return self
 574
 575    def assert_is(self, type_):
 576        """
 577        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
 578
 579        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
 580        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
 581
 582        Examples:
 583            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
 584
 585            >>> import sqlglot
 586            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
 587            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
 588        """
 589        assert isinstance(self, type_)
 590        return self
 591
 592    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
 593        """
 594        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
 595
 596        Args:
 597            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
 598                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
 599
 600        Returns:
 601            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
 602        """
 603        errors: t.List[str] = []
 604
 605        for k in self.args:
 606            if k not in self.arg_types:
 607                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
 608        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
 609            v = self.args.get(k)
 610            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
 611                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
 612
 613        if (
 614            args
 615            and isinstance(self, Func)
 616            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
 617            and not self.is_var_len_args
 618        ):
 619            errors.append(
 620                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
 621                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
 622            )
 623
 624        return errors
 625
 626    def dump(self):
 627        """
 628        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
 629        """
 630        from sqlglot.serde import dump
 631
 632        return dump(self)
 633
 634    @classmethod
 635    def load(cls, obj):
 636        """
 637        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
 638        """
 639        from sqlglot.serde import load
 640
 641        return load(obj)
 642
 643
 644IntoType = t.Union[
 645    str,
 646    t.Type[Expression],
 647    t.Collection[t.Union[str, t.Type[Expression]]],
 648]
 649ExpOrStr = t.Union[str, Expression]
 650
 651
 652class Condition(Expression):
 653    def and_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
 654        """
 655        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 656
 657        Example:
 658            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
 659            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
 660
 661        Args:
 662            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
 663                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 664            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 665            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 666
 667        Returns:
 668            And: the new condition.
 669        """
 670        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 671
 672    def or_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
 673        """
 674        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 675
 676        Example:
 677            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
 678            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
 679
 680        Args:
 681            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
 682                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 683            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 684            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 685
 686        Returns:
 687            Or: the new condition.
 688        """
 689        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 690
 691    def not_(self):
 692        """
 693        Wrap this condition with NOT.
 694
 695        Example:
 696            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
 697            'NOT x = 1'
 698
 699        Returns:
 700            Not: the new condition.
 701        """
 702        return not_(self)
 703
 704
 705class Predicate(Condition):
 706    """Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y."""
 707
 708
 709class DerivedTable(Expression):
 710    @property
 711    def alias_column_names(self):
 712        table_alias = self.args.get("alias")
 713        if not table_alias:
 714            return []
 715        column_list = table_alias.assert_is(TableAlias).args.get("columns") or []
 716        return [c.name for c in column_list]
 717
 718    @property
 719    def selects(self):
 720        alias = self.args.get("alias")
 721
 722        if alias:
 723            return alias.columns
 724        return []
 725
 726    @property
 727    def named_selects(self):
 728        return [select.output_name for select in self.selects]
 729
 730
 731class Unionable(Expression):
 732    def union(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
 733        """
 734        Builds a UNION expression.
 735
 736        Example:
 737            >>> import sqlglot
 738            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 739            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
 740
 741        Args:
 742            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
 743                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 744            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 745            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 746            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 747        Returns:
 748            Union: the Union expression.
 749        """
 750        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 751
 752    def intersect(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
 753        """
 754        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
 755
 756        Example:
 757            >>> import sqlglot
 758            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 759            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
 760
 761        Args:
 762            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
 763                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 764            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 765            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 766            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 767        Returns:
 768            Intersect: the Intersect expression
 769        """
 770        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 771
 772    def except_(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
 773        """
 774        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
 775
 776        Example:
 777            >>> import sqlglot
 778            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 779            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
 780
 781        Args:
 782            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
 783                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 784            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 785            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 786            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 787        Returns:
 788            Except: the Except expression
 789        """
 790        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 791
 792
 793class UDTF(DerivedTable, Unionable):
 794    pass
 795
 796
 797class Cache(Expression):
 798    arg_types = {
 799        "with": False,
 800        "this": True,
 801        "lazy": False,
 802        "options": False,
 803        "expression": False,
 804    }
 805
 806
 807class Uncache(Expression):
 808    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False}
 809
 810
 811class Create(Expression):
 812    arg_types = {
 813        "with": False,
 814        "this": True,
 815        "kind": True,
 816        "expression": False,
 817        "exists": False,
 818        "properties": False,
 819        "replace": False,
 820        "unique": False,
 821        "indexes": False,
 822        "no_schema_binding": False,
 823        "begin": False,
 824    }
 825
 826
 827class Describe(Expression):
 828    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
 829
 830
 831class Pragma(Expression):
 832    pass
 833
 834
 835class Set(Expression):
 836    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
 837
 838
 839class SetItem(Expression):
 840    arg_types = {
 841        "this": False,
 842        "expressions": False,
 843        "kind": False,
 844        "collate": False,  # MySQL SET NAMES statement
 845        "global": False,
 846    }
 847
 848
 849class Show(Expression):
 850    arg_types = {
 851        "this": True,
 852        "target": False,
 853        "offset": False,
 854        "limit": False,
 855        "like": False,
 856        "where": False,
 857        "db": False,
 858        "full": False,
 859        "mutex": False,
 860        "query": False,
 861        "channel": False,
 862        "global": False,
 863        "log": False,
 864        "position": False,
 865        "types": False,
 866    }
 867
 868
 869class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
 870    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
 871
 872
 873class CharacterSet(Expression):
 874    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
 875
 876
 877class With(Expression):
 878    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "recursive": False}
 879
 880    @property
 881    def recursive(self) -> bool:
 882        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
 883
 884
 885class WithinGroup(Expression):
 886    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
 887
 888
 889class CTE(DerivedTable):
 890    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": True}
 891
 892
 893class TableAlias(Expression):
 894    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
 895
 896    @property
 897    def columns(self):
 898        return self.args.get("columns") or []
 899
 900
 901class BitString(Condition):
 902    pass
 903
 904
 905class HexString(Condition):
 906    pass
 907
 908
 909class ByteString(Condition):
 910    pass
 911
 912
 913class Column(Condition):
 914    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False, "db": False, "catalog": False, "join_mark": False}
 915
 916    @property
 917    def table(self) -> str:
 918        return self.text("table")
 919
 920    @property
 921    def db(self) -> str:
 922        return self.text("db")
 923
 924    @property
 925    def catalog(self) -> str:
 926        return self.text("catalog")
 927
 928    @property
 929    def output_name(self) -> str:
 930        return self.name
 931
 932    @property
 933    def parts(self) -> t.List[Identifier]:
 934        """Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name."""
 935        return [part for part in reversed(list(self.args.values())) if part]
 936
 937    def to_dot(self) -> Dot:
 938        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
 939        parts = self.parts
 940        parent = self.parent
 941
 942        while parent:
 943            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
 944                parts.append(parent.expression)
 945            parent = parent.parent
 946
 947        return Dot.build(parts)
 948
 949
 950class ColumnPosition(Expression):
 951    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
 952
 953
 954class ColumnDef(Expression):
 955    arg_types = {
 956        "this": True,
 957        "kind": False,
 958        "constraints": False,
 959        "exists": False,
 960        "position": False,
 961    }
 962
 963
 964class AlterColumn(Expression):
 965    arg_types = {
 966        "this": True,
 967        "dtype": False,
 968        "collate": False,
 969        "using": False,
 970        "default": False,
 971        "drop": False,
 972    }
 973
 974
 975class RenameTable(Expression):
 976    pass
 977
 978
 979class SetTag(Expression):
 980    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "unset": False}
 981
 982
 983class Comment(Expression):
 984    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True, "exists": False}
 985
 986
 987class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
 988    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": True}
 989
 990
 991class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
 992    pass
 993
 994
 995class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
 996    pass
 997
 998
 999class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1000    arg_types = {"not_": True}
1001
1002
1003class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1004    arg_types = {"this": True}
1005
1006
1007class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1008    pass
1009
1010
1011class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1012    pass
1013
1014
1015class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1016    pass
1017
1018
1019class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1020    pass
1021
1022
1023class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1024    arg_types = {"this": True}
1025
1026
1027class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1028    pass
1029
1030
1031class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1032    pass
1033
1034
1035class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1036    # this: True -> ALWAYS, this: False -> BY DEFAULT
1037    arg_types = {
1038        "this": False,
1039        "start": False,
1040        "increment": False,
1041        "minvalue": False,
1042        "maxvalue": False,
1043        "cycle": False,
1044    }
1045
1046
1047class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1048    pass
1049
1050
1051class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1052    arg_types = {"allow_null": False}
1053
1054
1055# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.7/en/timestamp-initialization.html
1056class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1057    pass
1058
1059
1060class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1061    arg_types = {"desc": False}
1062
1063
1064class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1065    pass
1066
1067
1068class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1069    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
1070
1071
1072class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1073    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
1074
1075
1076class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1077    pass
1078
1079
1080class Constraint(Expression):
1081    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1082
1083
1084class Delete(Expression):
1085    arg_types = {"with": False, "this": False, "using": False, "where": False, "returning": False}
1086
1087    def delete(
1088        self,
1089        table: ExpOrStr,
1090        dialect: DialectType = None,
1091        copy: bool = True,
1092        **opts,
1093    ) -> Delete:
1094        """
1095        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1096
1097        Example:
1098            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1099            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1100
1101        Args:
1102            table: the table from which to delete.
1103            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1104            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1105            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1106
1107        Returns:
1108            Delete: the modified expression.
1109        """
1110        return _apply_builder(
1111            expression=table,
1112            instance=self,
1113            arg="this",
1114            dialect=dialect,
1115            into=Table,
1116            copy=copy,
1117            **opts,
1118        )
1119
1120    def where(
1121        self,
1122        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
1123        append: bool = True,
1124        dialect: DialectType = None,
1125        copy: bool = True,
1126        **opts,
1127    ) -> Delete:
1128        """
1129        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1130
1131        Example:
1132            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1133            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1134
1135        Args:
1136            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1137                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1138                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1139            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1140                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1141            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1142            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1143            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1144
1145        Returns:
1146            Delete: the modified expression.
1147        """
1148        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1149            *expressions,
1150            instance=self,
1151            arg="where",
1152            append=append,
1153            into=Where,
1154            dialect=dialect,
1155            copy=copy,
1156            **opts,
1157        )
1158
1159    def returning(
1160        self,
1161        expression: ExpOrStr,
1162        dialect: DialectType = None,
1163        copy: bool = True,
1164        **opts,
1165    ) -> Delete:
1166        """
1167        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1168
1169        Example:
1170            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1171            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1172
1173        Args:
1174            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1175                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1176            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1177            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1178            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1179
1180        Returns:
1181            Delete: the modified expression.
1182        """
1183        return _apply_builder(
1184            expression=expression,
1185            instance=self,
1186            arg="returning",
1187            prefix="RETURNING",
1188            dialect=dialect,
1189            copy=copy,
1190            into=Returning,
1191            **opts,
1192        )
1193
1194
1195class Drop(Expression):
1196    arg_types = {
1197        "this": False,
1198        "kind": False,
1199        "exists": False,
1200        "temporary": False,
1201        "materialized": False,
1202        "cascade": False,
1203        "constraints": False,
1204        "purge": False,
1205    }
1206
1207
1208class Filter(Expression):
1209    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1210
1211
1212class Check(Expression):
1213    pass
1214
1215
1216class Directory(Expression):
1217    # https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.0.0-preview/sql-ref-syntax-dml-insert-overwrite-directory-hive.html
1218    arg_types = {"this": True, "local": False, "row_format": False}
1219
1220
1221class ForeignKey(Expression):
1222    arg_types = {
1223        "expressions": True,
1224        "reference": False,
1225        "delete": False,
1226        "update": False,
1227    }
1228
1229
1230class PrimaryKey(Expression):
1231    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "options": False}
1232
1233
1234class Unique(Expression):
1235    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1236
1237
1238# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/sql-selectinto.html
1239# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_SELECT_INTO.html#r_SELECT_INTO-examples
1240class Into(Expression):
1241    arg_types = {"this": True, "temporary": False, "unlogged": False}
1242
1243
1244class From(Expression):
1245    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1246
1247
1248class Having(Expression):
1249    pass
1250
1251
1252class Hint(Expression):
1253    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1254
1255
1256class JoinHint(Expression):
1257    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1258
1259
1260class Identifier(Expression):
1261    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False}
1262
1263    @property
1264    def quoted(self):
1265        return bool(self.args.get("quoted"))
1266
1267    @property
1268    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1269        if self.quoted and any(char.isupper() for char in self.this):
1270            return (self.this, self.quoted)
1271        return self.this.lower()
1272
1273    @property
1274    def output_name(self):
1275        return self.name
1276
1277
1278class Index(Expression):
1279    arg_types = {
1280        "this": False,
1281        "table": False,
1282        "where": False,
1283        "columns": False,
1284        "unique": False,
1285        "primary": False,
1286        "amp": False,  # teradata
1287    }
1288
1289
1290class Insert(Expression):
1291    arg_types = {
1292        "with": False,
1293        "this": True,
1294        "expression": False,
1295        "returning": False,
1296        "overwrite": False,
1297        "exists": False,
1298        "partition": False,
1299        "alternative": False,
1300    }
1301
1302
1303class Returning(Expression):
1304    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1305
1306
1307# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/charset-introducer.html
1308class Introducer(Expression):
1309    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1310
1311
1312# national char, like n'utf8'
1313class National(Expression):
1314    pass
1315
1316
1317class LoadData(Expression):
1318    arg_types = {
1319        "this": True,
1320        "local": False,
1321        "overwrite": False,
1322        "inpath": True,
1323        "partition": False,
1324        "input_format": False,
1325        "serde": False,
1326    }
1327
1328
1329class Partition(Expression):
1330    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1331
1332
1333class Fetch(Expression):
1334    arg_types = {
1335        "direction": False,
1336        "count": False,
1337        "percent": False,
1338        "with_ties": False,
1339    }
1340
1341
1342class Group(Expression):
1343    arg_types = {
1344        "expressions": False,
1345        "grouping_sets": False,
1346        "cube": False,
1347        "rollup": False,
1348    }
1349
1350
1351class Lambda(Expression):
1352    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1353
1354
1355class Limit(Expression):
1356    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
1357
1358
1359class Literal(Condition):
1360    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_string": True}
1361
1362    @property
1363    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1364        return (self.this, self.args.get("is_string"))
1365
1366    @classmethod
1367    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
1368        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
1369
1370    @classmethod
1371    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
1372        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
1373
1374    @property
1375    def output_name(self):
1376        return self.name
1377
1378
1379class Join(Expression):
1380    arg_types = {
1381        "this": True,
1382        "on": False,
1383        "side": False,
1384        "kind": False,
1385        "using": False,
1386        "natural": False,
1387        "hint": False,
1388    }
1389
1390    @property
1391    def kind(self):
1392        return self.text("kind").upper()
1393
1394    @property
1395    def side(self):
1396        return self.text("side").upper()
1397
1398    @property
1399    def hint(self):
1400        return self.text("hint").upper()
1401
1402    @property
1403    def alias_or_name(self):
1404        return self.this.alias_or_name
1405
1406    def on(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1407        """
1408        Append to or set the ON expressions.
1409
1410        Example:
1411            >>> import sqlglot
1412            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
1413            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
1414
1415        Args:
1416            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
1417                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1418                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1419            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1420                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1421            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1422            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1423            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1424
1425        Returns:
1426            Join: the modified join expression.
1427        """
1428        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
1429            *expressions,
1430            instance=self,
1431            arg="on",
1432            append=append,
1433            dialect=dialect,
1434            copy=copy,
1435            **opts,
1436        )
1437
1438        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1439            join.set("kind", None)
1440
1441        return join
1442
1443    def using(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1444        """
1445        Append to or set the USING expressions.
1446
1447        Example:
1448            >>> import sqlglot
1449            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
1450            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
1451
1452        Args:
1453            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
1454                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1455            append (bool): if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
1456                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1457            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1458            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1459            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1460
1461        Returns:
1462            Join: the modified join expression.
1463        """
1464        join = _apply_list_builder(
1465            *expressions,
1466            instance=self,
1467            arg="using",
1468            append=append,
1469            dialect=dialect,
1470            copy=copy,
1471            **opts,
1472        )
1473
1474        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1475            join.set("kind", None)
1476
1477        return join
1478
1479
1480class Lateral(UDTF):
1481    arg_types = {"this": True, "view": False, "outer": False, "alias": False}
1482
1483
1484class MatchRecognize(Expression):
1485    arg_types = {
1486        "partition_by": False,
1487        "order": False,
1488        "measures": False,
1489        "rows": False,
1490        "after": False,
1491        "pattern": False,
1492        "define": False,
1493        "alias": False,
1494    }
1495
1496
1497# Clickhouse FROM FINAL modifier
1498# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/from/#final-modifier
1499class Final(Expression):
1500    pass
1501
1502
1503class Offset(Expression):
1504    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
1505
1506
1507class Order(Expression):
1508    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": True}
1509
1510
1511# hive specific sorts
1512# https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/Hive/LanguageManual+SortBy
1513class Cluster(Order):
1514    pass
1515
1516
1517class Distribute(Order):
1518    pass
1519
1520
1521class Sort(Order):
1522    pass
1523
1524
1525class Ordered(Expression):
1526    arg_types = {"this": True, "desc": True, "nulls_first": True}
1527
1528
1529class Property(Expression):
1530    arg_types = {"this": True, "value": True}
1531
1532
1533class AfterJournalProperty(Property):
1534    arg_types = {"no": True, "dual": False, "local": False}
1535
1536
1537class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
1538    arg_types = {"this": True}
1539
1540
1541class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
1542    arg_types = {"this": True}
1543
1544
1545class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
1546    arg_types = {"autotemp": False, "always": False, "default": True, "manual": True, "never": True}
1547
1548
1549class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
1550    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": True}
1551
1552
1553class ChecksumProperty(Property):
1554    arg_types = {"on": False, "default": False}
1555
1556
1557class CollateProperty(Property):
1558    arg_types = {"this": True}
1559
1560
1561class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
1562    arg_types = {"size": False, "units": False, "min": False, "default": False}
1563
1564
1565class DefinerProperty(Property):
1566    arg_types = {"this": True}
1567
1568
1569class DistKeyProperty(Property):
1570    arg_types = {"this": True}
1571
1572
1573class DistStyleProperty(Property):
1574    arg_types = {"this": True}
1575
1576
1577class EngineProperty(Property):
1578    arg_types = {"this": True}
1579
1580
1581class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
1582    arg_types = {"this": True}
1583
1584
1585class ExternalProperty(Property):
1586    arg_types = {"this": False}
1587
1588
1589class FallbackProperty(Property):
1590    arg_types = {"no": True, "protection": False}
1591
1592
1593class FileFormatProperty(Property):
1594    arg_types = {"this": True}
1595
1596
1597class FreespaceProperty(Property):
1598    arg_types = {"this": True, "percent": False}
1599
1600
1601class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
1602    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
1603
1604
1605class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
1606    arg_types = {
1607        "no": True,
1608        "concurrent": True,
1609        "for_all": True,
1610        "for_insert": True,
1611        "for_none": True,
1612    }
1613
1614
1615class JournalProperty(Property):
1616    arg_types = {"no": True, "dual": False, "before": False}
1617
1618
1619class LanguageProperty(Property):
1620    arg_types = {"this": True}
1621
1622
1623class LikeProperty(Property):
1624    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
1625
1626
1627class LocationProperty(Property):
1628    arg_types = {"this": True}
1629
1630
1631class LockingProperty(Property):
1632    arg_types = {
1633        "this": False,
1634        "kind": True,
1635        "for_or_in": True,
1636        "lock_type": True,
1637        "override": False,
1638    }
1639
1640
1641class LogProperty(Property):
1642    arg_types = {"no": True}
1643
1644
1645class MaterializedProperty(Property):
1646    arg_types = {"this": False}
1647
1648
1649class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
1650    arg_types = {"this": False, "no": False, "default": False, "percent": False}
1651
1652
1653class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
1654    arg_types = {"this": False}
1655
1656
1657class OnCommitProperty(Property):
1658    arg_type = {"this": False}
1659
1660
1661class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
1662    arg_types = {"this": True}
1663
1664
1665class ReturnsProperty(Property):
1666    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_table": False, "table": False}
1667
1668
1669class RowFormatProperty(Property):
1670    arg_types = {"this": True}
1671
1672
1673class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
1674    # https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/hive/languagemanual+dml
1675    arg_types = {
1676        "fields": False,
1677        "escaped": False,
1678        "collection_items": False,
1679        "map_keys": False,
1680        "lines": False,
1681        "null": False,
1682        "serde": False,
1683    }
1684
1685
1686class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
1687    arg_types = {"this": True}
1688
1689
1690class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
1691    arg_types = {"this": True}
1692
1693
1694class SerdeProperties(Property):
1695    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1696
1697
1698class SetProperty(Property):
1699    arg_types = {"multi": True}
1700
1701
1702class SortKeyProperty(Property):
1703    arg_types = {"this": True, "compound": False}
1704
1705
1706class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
1707    arg_types = {"definer": True}
1708
1709
1710class StabilityProperty(Property):
1711    arg_types = {"this": True}
1712
1713
1714class TableFormatProperty(Property):
1715    arg_types = {"this": True}
1716
1717
1718class TemporaryProperty(Property):
1719    arg_types = {"global_": True}
1720
1721
1722class TransientProperty(Property):
1723    arg_types = {"this": False}
1724
1725
1726class VolatileProperty(Property):
1727    arg_types = {"this": False}
1728
1729
1730class WithDataProperty(Property):
1731    arg_types = {"no": True, "statistics": False}
1732
1733
1734class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
1735    arg_types = {"this": True}
1736
1737
1738class Properties(Expression):
1739    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1740
1741    NAME_TO_PROPERTY = {
1742        "ALGORITHM": AlgorithmProperty,
1743        "AUTO_INCREMENT": AutoIncrementProperty,
1744        "CHARACTER SET": CharacterSetProperty,
1745        "COLLATE": CollateProperty,
1746        "COMMENT": SchemaCommentProperty,
1747        "DEFINER": DefinerProperty,
1748        "DISTKEY": DistKeyProperty,
1749        "DISTSTYLE": DistStyleProperty,
1750        "ENGINE": EngineProperty,
1751        "EXECUTE AS": ExecuteAsProperty,
1752        "FORMAT": FileFormatProperty,
1753        "LANGUAGE": LanguageProperty,
1754        "LOCATION": LocationProperty,
1755        "PARTITIONED_BY": PartitionedByProperty,
1756        "RETURNS": ReturnsProperty,
1757        "ROW_FORMAT": RowFormatProperty,
1758        "SORTKEY": SortKeyProperty,
1759        "TABLE_FORMAT": TableFormatProperty,
1760    }
1761
1762    PROPERTY_TO_NAME = {v: k for k, v in NAME_TO_PROPERTY.items()}
1763
1764    # CREATE property locations
1765    # Form: schema specified
1766    #   create [POST_CREATE]
1767    #     table a [POST_NAME]
1768    #     (b int) [POST_SCHEMA]
1769    #     with ([POST_WITH])
1770    #     index (b) [POST_INDEX]
1771    #
1772    # Form: alias selection
1773    #   create [POST_CREATE]
1774    #     table a [POST_NAME]
1775    #     as [POST_ALIAS] (select * from b) [POST_EXPRESSION]
1776    #     index (c) [POST_INDEX]
1777    class Location(AutoName):
1778        POST_CREATE = auto()
1779        POST_NAME = auto()
1780        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
1781        POST_WITH = auto()
1782        POST_ALIAS = auto()
1783        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
1784        POST_INDEX = auto()
1785        UNSUPPORTED = auto()
1786
1787    @classmethod
1788    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict) -> Properties:
1789        expressions = []
1790        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
1791            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
1792            if property_cls:
1793                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
1794            else:
1795                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
1796
1797        return cls(expressions=expressions)
1798
1799
1800class Qualify(Expression):
1801    pass
1802
1803
1804# https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/ias?topic=procedures-return-statement-in-sql
1805class Return(Expression):
1806    pass
1807
1808
1809class Reference(Expression):
1810    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "options": False}
1811
1812
1813class Tuple(Expression):
1814    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
1815
1816
1817class Subqueryable(Unionable):
1818    def subquery(self, alias=None, copy=True) -> Subquery:
1819        """
1820        Convert this expression to an aliased expression that can be used as a Subquery.
1821
1822        Example:
1823            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
1824            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
1825            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
1826
1827        Args:
1828            alias (str | Identifier): an optional alias for the subquery
1829            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1830
1831        Returns:
1832            Alias: the subquery
1833        """
1834        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
1835        return Subquery(
1836            this=instance,
1837            alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
1838        )
1839
1840    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
1841        raise NotImplementedError
1842
1843    @property
1844    def ctes(self):
1845        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1846        if not with_:
1847            return []
1848        return with_.expressions
1849
1850    @property
1851    def selects(self):
1852        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `selects`")
1853
1854    @property
1855    def named_selects(self):
1856        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `named_selects`")
1857
1858    def with_(
1859        self,
1860        alias,
1861        as_,
1862        recursive=None,
1863        append=True,
1864        dialect=None,
1865        copy=True,
1866        **opts,
1867    ):
1868        """
1869        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1870
1871        Example:
1872            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
1873            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
1874
1875        Args:
1876            alias (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1877                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1878            as_ (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1879                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1880            recursive (bool): set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1881            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1882                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1883            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1884            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1885            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1886
1887        Returns:
1888            Select: the modified expression.
1889        """
1890        alias_expression = maybe_parse(
1891            alias,
1892            dialect=dialect,
1893            into=TableAlias,
1894            **opts,
1895        )
1896        as_expression = maybe_parse(
1897            as_,
1898            dialect=dialect,
1899            **opts,
1900        )
1901        cte = CTE(
1902            this=as_expression,
1903            alias=alias_expression,
1904        )
1905        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1906            cte,
1907            instance=self,
1908            arg="with",
1909            append=append,
1910            copy=copy,
1911            into=With,
1912            properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
1913        )
1914
1915
1916QUERY_MODIFIERS = {
1917    "match": False,
1918    "laterals": False,
1919    "joins": False,
1920    "pivots": False,
1921    "where": False,
1922    "group": False,
1923    "having": False,
1924    "qualify": False,
1925    "windows": False,
1926    "distribute": False,
1927    "sort": False,
1928    "cluster": False,
1929    "order": False,
1930    "limit": False,
1931    "offset": False,
1932    "lock": False,
1933    "sample": False,
1934}
1935
1936
1937class Table(Expression):
1938    arg_types = {
1939        "this": True,
1940        "alias": False,
1941        "db": False,
1942        "catalog": False,
1943        "laterals": False,
1944        "joins": False,
1945        "pivots": False,
1946        "hints": False,
1947        "system_time": False,
1948    }
1949
1950    @property
1951    def db(self) -> str:
1952        return self.text("db")
1953
1954    @property
1955    def catalog(self) -> str:
1956        return self.text("catalog")
1957
1958
1959# See the TSQL "Querying data in a system-versioned temporal table" page
1960class SystemTime(Expression):
1961    arg_types = {
1962        "this": False,
1963        "expression": False,
1964        "kind": True,
1965    }
1966
1967
1968class Union(Subqueryable):
1969    arg_types = {
1970        "with": False,
1971        "this": True,
1972        "expression": True,
1973        "distinct": False,
1974        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
1975    }
1976
1977    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
1978        """
1979        Set the LIMIT expression.
1980
1981        Example:
1982            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
1983            'SELECT * FROM (SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1) AS _l_0 LIMIT 1'
1984
1985        Args:
1986            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
1987                This can also be an integer.
1988                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1989                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
1990            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1991            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1992            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1993
1994        Returns:
1995            Select: The limited subqueryable.
1996        """
1997        return (
1998            select("*")
1999            .from_(self.subquery(alias="_l_0", copy=copy))
2000            .limit(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2001        )
2002
2003    def select(
2004        self,
2005        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2006        append: bool = True,
2007        dialect: DialectType = None,
2008        copy: bool = True,
2009        **opts,
2010    ) -> Union:
2011        """Append to or set the SELECT of the union recursively.
2012
2013        Example:
2014            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
2015            >>> parse_one("select a from x union select a from y union select a from z").select("b").sql()
2016            'SELECT a, b FROM x UNION SELECT a, b FROM y UNION SELECT a, b FROM z'
2017
2018        Args:
2019            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2020                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2021            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2022                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2023            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2024            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2025            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2026
2027        Returns:
2028            Union: the modified expression.
2029        """
2030        this = self.copy() if copy else self
2031        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2032        this.expression.unnest().select(
2033            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
2034        )
2035        return this
2036
2037    @property
2038    def named_selects(self):
2039        return self.this.unnest().named_selects
2040
2041    @property
2042    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2043        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
2044
2045    @property
2046    def selects(self):
2047        return self.this.unnest().selects
2048
2049    @property
2050    def left(self):
2051        return self.this
2052
2053    @property
2054    def right(self):
2055        return self.expression
2056
2057
2058class Except(Union):
2059    pass
2060
2061
2062class Intersect(Union):
2063    pass
2064
2065
2066class Unnest(UDTF):
2067    arg_types = {
2068        "expressions": True,
2069        "ordinality": False,
2070        "alias": False,
2071        "offset": False,
2072    }
2073
2074
2075class Update(Expression):
2076    arg_types = {
2077        "with": False,
2078        "this": False,
2079        "expressions": True,
2080        "from": False,
2081        "where": False,
2082        "returning": False,
2083    }
2084
2085
2086class Values(UDTF):
2087    arg_types = {
2088        "expressions": True,
2089        "ordinality": False,
2090        "alias": False,
2091    }
2092
2093
2094class Var(Expression):
2095    pass
2096
2097
2098class Schema(Expression):
2099    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
2100
2101
2102# Used to represent the FOR UPDATE and FOR SHARE locking read types.
2103# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/innodb-locking-reads.html
2104class Lock(Expression):
2105    arg_types = {"update": True}
2106
2107
2108class Select(Subqueryable):
2109    arg_types = {
2110        "with": False,
2111        "kind": False,
2112        "expressions": False,
2113        "hint": False,
2114        "distinct": False,
2115        "into": False,
2116        "from": False,
2117        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2118    }
2119
2120    def from_(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2121        """
2122        Set the FROM expression.
2123
2124        Example:
2125            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
2126            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
2127
2128        Args:
2129            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2130                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2131                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
2132            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2133                Otherwise, this flattens all the `From` expression into a single expression.
2134            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2135            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2136            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2137
2138        Returns:
2139            Select: the modified expression.
2140        """
2141        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2142            *expressions,
2143            instance=self,
2144            arg="from",
2145            append=append,
2146            copy=copy,
2147            prefix="FROM",
2148            into=From,
2149            dialect=dialect,
2150            **opts,
2151        )
2152
2153    def group_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2154        """
2155        Set the GROUP BY expression.
2156
2157        Example:
2158            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
2159            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
2160
2161        Args:
2162            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2163                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2164                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
2165                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
2166            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2167                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
2168            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2169            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2170            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2171
2172        Returns:
2173            Select: the modified expression.
2174        """
2175        if not expressions:
2176            return self if not copy else self.copy()
2177        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2178            *expressions,
2179            instance=self,
2180            arg="group",
2181            append=append,
2182            copy=copy,
2183            prefix="GROUP BY",
2184            into=Group,
2185            dialect=dialect,
2186            **opts,
2187        )
2188
2189    def order_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2190        """
2191        Set the ORDER BY expression.
2192
2193        Example:
2194            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
2195            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
2196
2197        Args:
2198            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2199                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2200                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
2201            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2202                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2203            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2204            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2205            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2206
2207        Returns:
2208            Select: the modified expression.
2209        """
2210        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2211            *expressions,
2212            instance=self,
2213            arg="order",
2214            append=append,
2215            copy=copy,
2216            prefix="ORDER BY",
2217            into=Order,
2218            dialect=dialect,
2219            **opts,
2220        )
2221
2222    def sort_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2223        """
2224        Set the SORT BY expression.
2225
2226        Example:
2227            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql()
2228            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
2229
2230        Args:
2231            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2232                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2233                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
2234            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2235                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2236            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2237            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2238            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2239
2240        Returns:
2241            Select: the modified expression.
2242        """
2243        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2244            *expressions,
2245            instance=self,
2246            arg="sort",
2247            append=append,
2248            copy=copy,
2249            prefix="SORT BY",
2250            into=Sort,
2251            dialect=dialect,
2252            **opts,
2253        )
2254
2255    def cluster_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2256        """
2257        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
2258
2259        Example:
2260            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql()
2261            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
2262
2263        Args:
2264            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2265                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2266                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
2267            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2268                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2269            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2270            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2271            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2272
2273        Returns:
2274            Select: the modified expression.
2275        """
2276        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2277            *expressions,
2278            instance=self,
2279            arg="cluster",
2280            append=append,
2281            copy=copy,
2282            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
2283            into=Cluster,
2284            dialect=dialect,
2285            **opts,
2286        )
2287
2288    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2289        """
2290        Set the LIMIT expression.
2291
2292        Example:
2293            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").limit(10).sql()
2294            'SELECT x FROM tbl LIMIT 10'
2295
2296        Args:
2297            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2298                This can also be an integer.
2299                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2300                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
2301            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2302            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2303            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2304
2305        Returns:
2306            Select: the modified expression.
2307        """
2308        return _apply_builder(
2309            expression=expression,
2310            instance=self,
2311            arg="limit",
2312            into=Limit,
2313            prefix="LIMIT",
2314            dialect=dialect,
2315            copy=copy,
2316            **opts,
2317        )
2318
2319    def offset(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2320        """
2321        Set the OFFSET expression.
2322
2323        Example:
2324            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
2325            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
2326
2327        Args:
2328            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2329                This can also be an integer.
2330                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2331                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
2332            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2333            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2334            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2335
2336        Returns:
2337            Select: the modified expression.
2338        """
2339        return _apply_builder(
2340            expression=expression,
2341            instance=self,
2342            arg="offset",
2343            into=Offset,
2344            prefix="OFFSET",
2345            dialect=dialect,
2346            copy=copy,
2347            **opts,
2348        )
2349
2350    def select(
2351        self,
2352        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2353        append: bool = True,
2354        dialect: DialectType = None,
2355        copy: bool = True,
2356        **opts,
2357    ) -> Select:
2358        """
2359        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
2360
2361        Example:
2362            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
2363            'SELECT x, y'
2364
2365        Args:
2366            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2367                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2368            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2369                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2370            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2371            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2372            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2373
2374        Returns:
2375            Select: the modified expression.
2376        """
2377        return _apply_list_builder(
2378            *expressions,
2379            instance=self,
2380            arg="expressions",
2381            append=append,
2382            dialect=dialect,
2383            copy=copy,
2384            **opts,
2385        )
2386
2387    def lateral(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2388        """
2389        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
2390
2391        Example:
2392            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
2393            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
2394
2395        Args:
2396            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2397                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2398            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2399                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2400            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2401            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2402            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2403
2404        Returns:
2405            Select: the modified expression.
2406        """
2407        return _apply_list_builder(
2408            *expressions,
2409            instance=self,
2410            arg="laterals",
2411            append=append,
2412            into=Lateral,
2413            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
2414            dialect=dialect,
2415            copy=copy,
2416            **opts,
2417        )
2418
2419    def join(
2420        self,
2421        expression,
2422        on=None,
2423        using=None,
2424        append=True,
2425        join_type=None,
2426        join_alias=None,
2427        dialect=None,
2428        copy=True,
2429        **opts,
2430    ) -> Select:
2431        """
2432        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
2433
2434        Example:
2435            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
2436            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
2437
2438            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
2439            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
2440
2441            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
2442
2443            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
2444            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
2445
2446        Args:
2447            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2448                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2449            on (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
2450                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2451            using (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
2452                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2453            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2454                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2455            join_type (str): If set, alter the parsed join type
2456            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2457            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2458            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2459
2460        Returns:
2461            Select: the modified expression.
2462        """
2463        parse_args = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
2464
2465        try:
2466            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
2467        except ParseError:
2468            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
2469
2470        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
2471
2472        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
2473            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
2474
2475        if join_type:
2476            natural: t.Optional[Token]
2477            side: t.Optional[Token]
2478            kind: t.Optional[Token]
2479
2480            natural, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
2481
2482            if natural:
2483                join.set("natural", True)
2484            if side:
2485                join.set("side", side.text)
2486            if kind:
2487                join.set("kind", kind.text)
2488
2489        if on:
2490            on = and_(*ensure_collection(on), dialect=dialect, **opts)
2491            join.set("on", on)
2492
2493        if using:
2494            join = _apply_list_builder(
2495                *ensure_collection(using),
2496                instance=join,
2497                arg="using",
2498                append=append,
2499                copy=copy,
2500                **opts,
2501            )
2502
2503        if join_alias:
2504            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
2505        return _apply_list_builder(
2506            join,
2507            instance=self,
2508            arg="joins",
2509            append=append,
2510            copy=copy,
2511            **opts,
2512        )
2513
2514    def where(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2515        """
2516        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
2517
2518        Example:
2519            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
2520            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
2521
2522        Args:
2523            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2524                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2525                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2526            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2527                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2528            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2529            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2530            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2531
2532        Returns:
2533            Select: the modified expression.
2534        """
2535        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2536            *expressions,
2537            instance=self,
2538            arg="where",
2539            append=append,
2540            into=Where,
2541            dialect=dialect,
2542            copy=copy,
2543            **opts,
2544        )
2545
2546    def having(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2547        """
2548        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
2549
2550        Example:
2551            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
2552            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
2553
2554        Args:
2555            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2556                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2557                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2558            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2559                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2560            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2561            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2562            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2563
2564        Returns:
2565            Select: the modified expression.
2566        """
2567        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2568            *expressions,
2569            instance=self,
2570            arg="having",
2571            append=append,
2572            into=Having,
2573            dialect=dialect,
2574            copy=copy,
2575            **opts,
2576        )
2577
2578    def window(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2579        return _apply_list_builder(
2580            *expressions,
2581            instance=self,
2582            arg="windows",
2583            append=append,
2584            into=Window,
2585            dialect=dialect,
2586            copy=copy,
2587            **opts,
2588        )
2589
2590    def qualify(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2591        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2592            *expressions,
2593            instance=self,
2594            arg="qualify",
2595            append=append,
2596            into=Qualify,
2597            dialect=dialect,
2598            copy=copy,
2599            **opts,
2600        )
2601
2602    def distinct(self, distinct=True, copy=True) -> Select:
2603        """
2604        Set the OFFSET expression.
2605
2606        Example:
2607            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
2608            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
2609
2610        Args:
2611            distinct (bool): whether the Select should be distinct
2612            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2613
2614        Returns:
2615            Select: the modified expression.
2616        """
2617        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2618        instance.set("distinct", Distinct() if distinct else None)
2619        return instance
2620
2621    def ctas(self, table, properties=None, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Create:
2622        """
2623        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
2624
2625        Example:
2626            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
2627            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
2628
2629        Args:
2630            table (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2631                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2632            properties (dict): an optional mapping of table properties
2633            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input table.
2634            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2635            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input table.
2636
2637        Returns:
2638            Create: the CREATE TABLE AS expression
2639        """
2640        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2641        table_expression = maybe_parse(
2642            table,
2643            into=Table,
2644            dialect=dialect,
2645            **opts,
2646        )
2647        properties_expression = None
2648        if properties:
2649            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
2650
2651        return Create(
2652            this=table_expression,
2653            kind="table",
2654            expression=instance,
2655            properties=properties_expression,
2656        )
2657
2658    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
2659        """
2660        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
2661
2662        Examples:
2663            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
2664            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
2665
2666            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
2667            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
2668
2669        Args:
2670            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
2671            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2672
2673        Returns:
2674            The modified expression.
2675        """
2676
2677        inst = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2678        inst.set("lock", Lock(update=update))
2679
2680        return inst
2681
2682    @property
2683    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2684        return [e.output_name for e in self.expressions if e.alias_or_name]
2685
2686    @property
2687    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2688        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
2689
2690    @property
2691    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2692        return self.expressions
2693
2694
2695class Subquery(DerivedTable, Unionable):
2696    arg_types = {
2697        "this": True,
2698        "alias": False,
2699        "with": False,
2700        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2701    }
2702
2703    def unnest(self):
2704        """
2705        Returns the first non subquery.
2706        """
2707        expression = self
2708        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
2709            expression = expression.this
2710        return expression
2711
2712    @property
2713    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2714        return self.this.is_star
2715
2716    @property
2717    def output_name(self):
2718        return self.alias
2719
2720
2721class TableSample(Expression):
2722    arg_types = {
2723        "this": False,
2724        "method": False,
2725        "bucket_numerator": False,
2726        "bucket_denominator": False,
2727        "bucket_field": False,
2728        "percent": False,
2729        "rows": False,
2730        "size": False,
2731        "seed": False,
2732        "kind": False,
2733    }
2734
2735
2736class Tag(Expression):
2737    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
2738
2739    arg_types = {
2740        "this": False,
2741        "prefix": False,
2742        "postfix": False,
2743    }
2744
2745
2746class Pivot(Expression):
2747    arg_types = {
2748        "this": False,
2749        "alias": False,
2750        "expressions": True,
2751        "field": True,
2752        "unpivot": True,
2753    }
2754
2755
2756class Window(Expression):
2757    arg_types = {
2758        "this": True,
2759        "partition_by": False,
2760        "order": False,
2761        "spec": False,
2762        "alias": False,
2763    }
2764
2765
2766class WindowSpec(Expression):
2767    arg_types = {
2768        "kind": False,
2769        "start": False,
2770        "start_side": False,
2771        "end": False,
2772        "end_side": False,
2773    }
2774
2775
2776class Where(Expression):
2777    pass
2778
2779
2780class Star(Expression):
2781    arg_types = {"except": False, "replace": False}
2782
2783    @property
2784    def name(self) -> str:
2785        return "*"
2786
2787    @property
2788    def output_name(self):
2789        return self.name
2790
2791
2792class Parameter(Expression):
2793    arg_types = {"this": True, "wrapped": False}
2794
2795
2796class SessionParameter(Expression):
2797    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
2798
2799
2800class Placeholder(Expression):
2801    arg_types = {"this": False}
2802
2803
2804class Null(Condition):
2805    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
2806
2807    @property
2808    def name(self) -> str:
2809        return "NULL"
2810
2811
2812class Boolean(Condition):
2813    pass
2814
2815
2816class DataType(Expression):
2817    arg_types = {
2818        "this": True,
2819        "expressions": False,
2820        "nested": False,
2821        "values": False,
2822        "prefix": False,
2823    }
2824
2825    class Type(AutoName):
2826        CHAR = auto()
2827        NCHAR = auto()
2828        VARCHAR = auto()
2829        NVARCHAR = auto()
2830        TEXT = auto()
2831        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
2832        LONGTEXT = auto()
2833        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
2834        LONGBLOB = auto()
2835        BINARY = auto()
2836        VARBINARY = auto()
2837        INT = auto()
2838        UINT = auto()
2839        TINYINT = auto()
2840        UTINYINT = auto()
2841        SMALLINT = auto()
2842        USMALLINT = auto()
2843        BIGINT = auto()
2844        UBIGINT = auto()
2845        FLOAT = auto()
2846        DOUBLE = auto()
2847        DECIMAL = auto()
2848        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
2849        BIT = auto()
2850        BOOLEAN = auto()
2851        JSON = auto()
2852        JSONB = auto()
2853        INTERVAL = auto()
2854        TIME = auto()
2855        TIMESTAMP = auto()
2856        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
2857        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
2858        DATE = auto()
2859        DATETIME = auto()
2860        ARRAY = auto()
2861        MAP = auto()
2862        UUID = auto()
2863        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
2864        GEOMETRY = auto()
2865        STRUCT = auto()
2866        NULLABLE = auto()
2867        HLLSKETCH = auto()
2868        HSTORE = auto()
2869        SUPER = auto()
2870        SERIAL = auto()
2871        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
2872        BIGSERIAL = auto()
2873        XML = auto()
2874        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
2875        MONEY = auto()
2876        SMALLMONEY = auto()
2877        ROWVERSION = auto()
2878        IMAGE = auto()
2879        VARIANT = auto()
2880        OBJECT = auto()
2881        INET = auto()
2882        NULL = auto()
2883        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation
2884
2885    TEXT_TYPES = {
2886        Type.CHAR,
2887        Type.NCHAR,
2888        Type.VARCHAR,
2889        Type.NVARCHAR,
2890        Type.TEXT,
2891    }
2892
2893    INTEGER_TYPES = {
2894        Type.INT,
2895        Type.TINYINT,
2896        Type.SMALLINT,
2897        Type.BIGINT,
2898    }
2899
2900    FLOAT_TYPES = {
2901        Type.FLOAT,
2902        Type.DOUBLE,
2903    }
2904
2905    NUMERIC_TYPES = {*INTEGER_TYPES, *FLOAT_TYPES}
2906
2907    TEMPORAL_TYPES = {
2908        Type.TIMESTAMP,
2909        Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
2910        Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ,
2911        Type.DATE,
2912        Type.DATETIME,
2913    }
2914
2915    @classmethod
2916    def build(
2917        cls, dtype: str | DataType | DataType.Type, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
2918    ) -> DataType:
2919        from sqlglot import parse_one
2920
2921        if isinstance(dtype, str):
2922            if dtype.upper() in cls.Type.__members__:
2923                data_type_exp: t.Optional[Expression] = DataType(this=DataType.Type[dtype.upper()])
2924            else:
2925                data_type_exp = parse_one(dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType)
2926            if data_type_exp is None:
2927                raise ValueError(f"Unparsable data type value: {dtype}")
2928        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
2929            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
2930        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
2931            return dtype
2932        else:
2933            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
2934        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
2935
2936    def is_type(self, dtype: DataType.Type) -> bool:
2937        return self.this == dtype
2938
2939
2940# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-pseudo.html
2941class PseudoType(Expression):
2942    pass
2943
2944
2945class StructKwarg(Expression):
2946    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2947
2948
2949# WHERE x <OP> EXISTS|ALL|ANY|SOME(SELECT ...)
2950class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
2951    pass
2952
2953
2954class All(SubqueryPredicate):
2955    pass
2956
2957
2958class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
2959    pass
2960
2961
2962class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
2963    pass
2964
2965
2966# Commands to interact with the databases or engines. For most of the command
2967# expressions we parse whatever comes after the command's name as a string.
2968class Command(Expression):
2969    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
2970
2971
2972class Transaction(Expression):
2973    arg_types = {"this": False, "modes": False}
2974
2975
2976class Commit(Expression):
2977    arg_types = {"chain": False}
2978
2979
2980class Rollback(Expression):
2981    arg_types = {"savepoint": False}
2982
2983
2984class AlterTable(Expression):
2985    arg_types = {"this": True, "actions": True, "exists": False}
2986
2987
2988class AddConstraint(Expression):
2989    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "enforced": False}
2990
2991
2992class DropPartition(Expression):
2993    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
2994
2995
2996# Binary expressions like (ADD a b)
2997class Binary(Expression):
2998    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2999
3000    @property
3001    def left(self):
3002        return self.this
3003
3004    @property
3005    def right(self):
3006        return self.expression
3007
3008
3009class Add(Binary):
3010    pass
3011
3012
3013class Connector(Binary, Condition):
3014    pass
3015
3016
3017class And(Connector):
3018    pass
3019
3020
3021class Or(Connector):
3022    pass
3023
3024
3025class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
3026    pass
3027
3028
3029class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
3030    pass
3031
3032
3033class BitwiseOr(Binary):
3034    pass
3035
3036
3037class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
3038    pass
3039
3040
3041class BitwiseXor(Binary):
3042    pass
3043
3044
3045class Div(Binary):
3046    pass
3047
3048
3049class Overlaps(Binary):
3050    pass
3051
3052
3053class Dot(Binary):
3054    @property
3055    def name(self) -> str:
3056        return self.expression.name
3057
3058    @classmethod
3059    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
3060        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
3061        if len(expressions) < 2:
3062            raise ValueError(f"Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
3063
3064        a, b, *expressions = expressions
3065        dot = Dot(this=a, expression=b)
3066
3067        for expression in expressions:
3068            dot = Dot(this=dot, expression=expression)
3069
3070        return dot
3071
3072
3073class DPipe(Binary):
3074    pass
3075
3076
3077class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
3078    pass
3079
3080
3081class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3082    pass
3083
3084
3085class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3086    pass
3087
3088
3089class Distance(Binary):
3090    pass
3091
3092
3093class Escape(Binary):
3094    pass
3095
3096
3097class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
3098    pass
3099
3100
3101class GT(Binary, Predicate):
3102    pass
3103
3104
3105class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
3106    pass
3107
3108
3109class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
3110    pass
3111
3112
3113class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3114    pass
3115
3116
3117class IntDiv(Binary):
3118    pass
3119
3120
3121class Is(Binary, Predicate):
3122    pass
3123
3124
3125class Kwarg(Binary):
3126    """Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y)."""
3127
3128
3129class Like(Binary, Predicate):
3130    pass
3131
3132
3133class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3134    pass
3135
3136
3137class LT(Binary, Predicate):
3138    pass
3139
3140
3141class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
3142    pass
3143
3144
3145class Mod(Binary):
3146    pass
3147
3148
3149class Mul(Binary):
3150    pass
3151
3152
3153class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3154    pass
3155
3156
3157class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
3158    pass
3159
3160
3161class Slice(Binary):
3162    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
3163
3164
3165class Sub(Binary):
3166    pass
3167
3168
3169class ArrayOverlaps(Binary):
3170    pass
3171
3172
3173# Unary Expressions
3174# (NOT a)
3175class Unary(Expression):
3176    pass
3177
3178
3179class BitwiseNot(Unary):
3180    pass
3181
3182
3183class Not(Unary, Condition):
3184    pass
3185
3186
3187class Paren(Unary, Condition):
3188    arg_types = {"this": True, "with": False}
3189
3190
3191class Neg(Unary):
3192    pass
3193
3194
3195class Alias(Expression):
3196    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": False}
3197
3198    @property
3199    def output_name(self):
3200        return self.alias
3201
3202
3203class Aliases(Expression):
3204    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
3205
3206    @property
3207    def aliases(self):
3208        return self.expressions
3209
3210
3211class AtTimeZone(Expression):
3212    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
3213
3214
3215class Between(Predicate):
3216    arg_types = {"this": True, "low": True, "high": True}
3217
3218
3219class Bracket(Condition):
3220    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
3221
3222
3223class Distinct(Expression):
3224    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "on": False}
3225
3226
3227class In(Predicate):
3228    arg_types = {
3229        "this": True,
3230        "expressions": False,
3231        "query": False,
3232        "unnest": False,
3233        "field": False,
3234        "is_global": False,
3235    }
3236
3237
3238class TimeUnit(Expression):
3239    """Automatically converts unit arg into a var."""
3240
3241    arg_types = {"unit": False}
3242
3243    def __init__(self, **args):
3244        unit = args.get("unit")
3245        if isinstance(unit, (Column, Literal)):
3246            args["unit"] = Var(this=unit.name)
3247        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
3248            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name))
3249        super().__init__(**args)
3250
3251
3252class Interval(TimeUnit):
3253    arg_types = {"this": False, "unit": False}
3254
3255
3256class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
3257    pass
3258
3259
3260class RespectNulls(Expression):
3261    pass
3262
3263
3264# Functions
3265class Func(Condition):
3266    """
3267    The base class for all function expressions.
3268
3269    Attributes:
3270        is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be
3271            treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
3272        _sql_names (list): determines the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items)
3273            for this function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing
3274            as well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL
3275            name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
3276    """
3277
3278    is_var_len_args = False
3279
3280    @classmethod
3281    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
3282        if cls.is_var_len_args:
3283            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
3284            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
3285            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
3286            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
3287
3288            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
3289            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
3290        else:
3291            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
3292
3293        return cls(**args_dict)
3294
3295    @classmethod
3296    def sql_names(cls):
3297        if cls is Func:
3298            raise NotImplementedError(
3299                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
3300            )
3301        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
3302            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
3303        return cls._sql_names
3304
3305    @classmethod
3306    def sql_name(cls):
3307        return cls.sql_names()[0]
3308
3309    @classmethod
3310    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
3311        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}
3312
3313
3314class AggFunc(Func):
3315    pass
3316
3317
3318class Abs(Func):
3319    pass
3320
3321
3322class Anonymous(Func):
3323    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3324    is_var_len_args = True
3325
3326
3327# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/hll
3328# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_HLL_function.html
3329class Hll(AggFunc):
3330    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3331    is_var_len_args = True
3332
3333
3334class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
3335    arg_types = {"this": True, "accuracy": False}
3336
3337
3338class Array(Func):
3339    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
3340    is_var_len_args = True
3341
3342
3343# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_char
3344class ToChar(Func):
3345    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
3346
3347
3348class GenerateSeries(Func):
3349    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "step": False}
3350
3351
3352class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
3353    pass
3354
3355
3356class ArrayAll(Func):
3357    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3358
3359
3360class ArrayAny(Func):
3361    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3362
3363
3364class ArrayConcat(Func):
3365    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3366    is_var_len_args = True
3367
3368
3369class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
3370    pass
3371
3372
3373class ArrayContained(Binary):
3374    pass
3375
3376
3377class ArrayFilter(Func):
3378    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3379    _sql_names = ["FILTER", "ARRAY_FILTER"]
3380
3381
3382class ArrayJoin(Func):
3383    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
3384
3385
3386class ArraySize(Func):
3387    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3388
3389
3390class ArraySort(Func):
3391    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3392
3393
3394class ArraySum(Func):
3395    pass
3396
3397
3398class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
3399    pass
3400
3401
3402class Avg(AggFunc):
3403    pass
3404
3405
3406class AnyValue(AggFunc):
3407    pass
3408
3409
3410class Case(Func):
3411    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
3412
3413
3414class Cast(Func):
3415    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True}
3416
3417    @property
3418    def name(self) -> str:
3419        return self.this.name
3420
3421    @property
3422    def to(self):
3423        return self.args["to"]
3424
3425    @property
3426    def output_name(self):
3427        return self.name
3428
3429    def is_type(self, dtype: DataType.Type) -> bool:
3430        return self.to.is_type(dtype)
3431
3432
3433class Collate(Binary):
3434    pass
3435
3436
3437class TryCast(Cast):
3438    pass
3439
3440
3441class Ceil(Func):
3442    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
3443    _sql_names = ["CEIL", "CEILING"]
3444
3445
3446class Coalesce(Func):
3447    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3448    is_var_len_args = True
3449
3450
3451class Concat(Func):
3452    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
3453    is_var_len_args = True
3454
3455
3456class ConcatWs(Concat):
3457    _sql_names = ["CONCAT_WS"]
3458
3459
3460class Count(AggFunc):
3461    arg_types = {"this": False}
3462
3463
3464class CountIf(AggFunc):
3465    pass
3466
3467
3468class CurrentDate(Func):
3469    arg_types = {"this": False}
3470
3471
3472class CurrentDatetime(Func):
3473    arg_types = {"this": False}
3474
3475
3476class CurrentTime(Func):
3477    arg_types = {"this": False}
3478
3479
3480class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
3481    arg_types = {"this": False}
3482
3483
3484class CurrentUser(Func):
3485    arg_types = {"this": False}
3486
3487
3488class DateAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3489    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3490
3491
3492class DateSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3493    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3494
3495
3496class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3497    _sql_names = ["DATEDIFF", "DATE_DIFF"]
3498    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3499
3500
3501class DateTrunc(Func):
3502    arg_types = {"unit": True, "this": True, "zone": False}
3503
3504
3505class DatetimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3506    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3507
3508
3509class DatetimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3510    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3511
3512
3513class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3514    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3515
3516
3517class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3518    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
3519
3520
3521class DayOfWeek(Func):
3522    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_WEEK", "DAYOFWEEK"]
3523
3524
3525class DayOfMonth(Func):
3526    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_MONTH", "DAYOFMONTH"]
3527
3528
3529class DayOfYear(Func):
3530    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_YEAR", "DAYOFYEAR"]
3531
3532
3533class WeekOfYear(Func):
3534    _sql_names = ["WEEK_OF_YEAR", "WEEKOFYEAR"]
3535
3536
3537class LastDateOfMonth(Func):
3538    pass
3539
3540
3541class Extract(Func):
3542    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3543
3544
3545class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3546    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3547
3548
3549class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3550    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3551
3552
3553class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3554    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3555
3556
3557class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3558    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
3559
3560
3561class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3562    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3563
3564
3565class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3566    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3567
3568
3569class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3570    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3571
3572
3573class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3574    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
3575
3576
3577class DateFromParts(Func):
3578    _sql_names = ["DATEFROMPARTS"]
3579    arg_types = {"year": True, "month": True, "day": True}
3580
3581
3582class DateStrToDate(Func):
3583    pass
3584
3585
3586class DateToDateStr(Func):
3587    pass
3588
3589
3590class DateToDi(Func):
3591    pass
3592
3593
3594class Day(Func):
3595    pass
3596
3597
3598class Decode(Func):
3599    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True, "replace": False}
3600
3601
3602class DiToDate(Func):
3603    pass
3604
3605
3606class Encode(Func):
3607    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True}
3608
3609
3610class Exp(Func):
3611    pass
3612
3613
3614class Explode(Func):
3615    pass
3616
3617
3618class ExponentialTimeDecayedAvg(AggFunc):
3619    arg_types = {"this": True, "time": False, "decay": False}
3620
3621
3622class Floor(Func):
3623    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
3624
3625
3626class Greatest(Func):
3627    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3628    is_var_len_args = True
3629
3630
3631class GroupConcat(Func):
3632    arg_types = {"this": True, "separator": False}
3633
3634
3635class GroupUniqArray(AggFunc):
3636    arg_types = {"this": True, "size": False}
3637
3638
3639class Hex(Func):
3640    pass
3641
3642
3643class Histogram(AggFunc):
3644    arg_types = {"this": True, "bins": False}
3645
3646
3647class If(Func):
3648    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
3649
3650
3651class IfNull(Func):
3652    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3653    _sql_names = ["IFNULL", "NVL"]
3654
3655
3656class Initcap(Func):
3657    pass
3658
3659
3660class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
3661    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3662
3663
3664class JSONObject(Func):
3665    arg_types = {
3666        "expressions": False,
3667        "null_handling": False,
3668        "unique_keys": False,
3669        "return_type": False,
3670        "format_json": False,
3671        "encoding": False,
3672    }
3673
3674
3675class JSONBContains(Binary):
3676    _sql_names = ["JSONB_CONTAINS"]
3677
3678
3679class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
3680    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT"]
3681
3682
3683class JSONExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
3684    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
3685
3686
3687class JSONBExtract(JSONExtract):
3688    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT"]
3689
3690
3691class JSONBExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
3692    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
3693
3694
3695class JSONFormat(Func):
3696    arg_types = {"this": False, "options": False}
3697    _sql_names = ["JSON_FORMAT"]
3698
3699
3700class Least(Func):
3701    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
3702    is_var_len_args = True
3703
3704
3705class Length(Func):
3706    pass
3707
3708
3709class Levenshtein(Func):
3710    arg_types = {
3711        "this": True,
3712        "expression": False,
3713        "ins_cost": False,
3714        "del_cost": False,
3715        "sub_cost": False,
3716    }
3717
3718
3719class Ln(Func):
3720    pass
3721
3722
3723class Log(Func):
3724    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3725
3726
3727class Log2(Func):
3728    pass
3729
3730
3731class Log10(Func):
3732    pass
3733
3734
3735class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
3736    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_OR", "BOOL_OR", "BOOLOR_AGG"]
3737
3738
3739class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
3740    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_AND", "BOOL_AND", "BOOLAND_AGG"]
3741
3742
3743class Lower(Func):
3744    _sql_names = ["LOWER", "LCASE"]
3745
3746
3747class Map(Func):
3748    arg_types = {"keys": False, "values": False}
3749
3750
3751class VarMap(Func):
3752    arg_types = {"keys": True, "values": True}
3753    is_var_len_args = True
3754
3755
3756# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/fulltext-search.html
3757class MatchAgainst(Func):
3758    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "modifier": False}
3759
3760
3761class Max(AggFunc):
3762    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3763    is_var_len_args = True
3764
3765
3766class Min(AggFunc):
3767    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3768    is_var_len_args = True
3769
3770
3771class Month(Func):
3772    pass
3773
3774
3775class Nvl2(Func):
3776    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
3777
3778
3779class Posexplode(Func):
3780    pass
3781
3782
3783class Pow(Binary, Func):
3784    _sql_names = ["POWER", "POW"]
3785
3786
3787class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
3788    pass
3789
3790
3791class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
3792    pass
3793
3794
3795class Quantile(AggFunc):
3796    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True}
3797
3798
3799# Clickhouse-specific:
3800# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/quantiles/#quantiles
3801class Quantiles(AggFunc):
3802    arg_types = {"parameters": True, "expressions": True}
3803    is_var_len_args = True
3804
3805
3806class QuantileIf(AggFunc):
3807    arg_types = {"parameters": True, "expressions": True}
3808
3809
3810class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
3811    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True, "accuracy": False, "weight": False}
3812
3813
3814class RangeN(Func):
3815    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "each": False}
3816
3817
3818class ReadCSV(Func):
3819    _sql_names = ["READ_CSV"]
3820    is_var_len_args = True
3821    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3822
3823
3824class Reduce(Func):
3825    arg_types = {"this": True, "initial": True, "merge": True, "finish": False}
3826
3827
3828class RegexpExtract(Func):
3829    arg_types = {
3830        "this": True,
3831        "expression": True,
3832        "position": False,
3833        "occurrence": False,
3834        "group": False,
3835    }
3836
3837
3838class RegexpLike(Func):
3839    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
3840
3841
3842class RegexpILike(Func):
3843    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
3844
3845
3846# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.functions.split.html
3847# limit is the number of times a pattern is applied
3848class RegexpSplit(Func):
3849    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
3850
3851
3852class Repeat(Func):
3853    arg_types = {"this": True, "times": True}
3854
3855
3856class Round(Func):
3857    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
3858
3859
3860class RowNumber(Func):
3861    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
3862
3863
3864class SafeDivide(Func):
3865    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3866
3867
3868class SetAgg(AggFunc):
3869    pass
3870
3871
3872class SortArray(Func):
3873    arg_types = {"this": True, "asc": False}
3874
3875
3876class Split(Func):
3877    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
3878
3879
3880# Start may be omitted in the case of postgres
3881# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/functions-string.html @ Table 9-6
3882class Substring(Func):
3883    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": False, "length": False}
3884
3885
3886class StrPosition(Func):
3887    arg_types = {
3888        "this": True,
3889        "substr": True,
3890        "position": False,
3891        "instance": False,
3892    }
3893
3894
3895class StrToDate(Func):
3896    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
3897
3898
3899class StrToTime(Func):
3900    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
3901
3902
3903# Spark allows unix_timestamp()
3904# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.3/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.functions.unix_timestamp.html
3905class StrToUnix(Func):
3906    arg_types = {"this": False, "format": False}
3907
3908
3909class NumberToStr(Func):
3910    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
3911
3912
3913class Struct(Func):
3914    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
3915    is_var_len_args = True
3916
3917
3918class StructExtract(Func):
3919    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3920
3921
3922class Sum(AggFunc):
3923    pass
3924
3925
3926class Sqrt(Func):
3927    pass
3928
3929
3930class Stddev(AggFunc):
3931    pass
3932
3933
3934class StddevPop(AggFunc):
3935    pass
3936
3937
3938class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
3939    pass
3940
3941
3942class TimeToStr(Func):
3943    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
3944
3945
3946class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
3947    pass
3948
3949
3950class TimeToUnix(Func):
3951    pass
3952
3953
3954class TimeStrToDate(Func):
3955    pass
3956
3957
3958class TimeStrToTime(Func):
3959    pass
3960
3961
3962class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
3963    pass
3964
3965
3966class Trim(Func):
3967    arg_types = {
3968        "this": True,
3969        "expression": False,
3970        "position": False,
3971        "collation": False,
3972    }
3973
3974
3975class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3976    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
3977
3978
3979class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
3980    pass
3981
3982
3983class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
3984    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
3985
3986
3987class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
3988    pass
3989
3990
3991class Unhex(Func):
3992    pass
3993
3994
3995class UnixToStr(Func):
3996    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
3997
3998
3999# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/datetime.html
4000# presto has weird zone/hours/minutes
4001class UnixToTime(Func):
4002    arg_types = {"this": True, "scale": False, "zone": False, "hours": False, "minutes": False}
4003
4004    SECONDS = Literal.string("seconds")
4005    MILLIS = Literal.string("millis")
4006    MICROS = Literal.string("micros")
4007
4008
4009class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
4010    pass
4011
4012
4013class Upper(Func):
4014    _sql_names = ["UPPER", "UCASE"]
4015
4016
4017class Variance(AggFunc):
4018    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE", "VARIANCE_SAMP", "VAR_SAMP"]
4019
4020
4021class VariancePop(AggFunc):
4022    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE_POP", "VAR_POP"]
4023
4024
4025class Week(Func):
4026    arg_types = {"this": True, "mode": False}
4027
4028
4029class XMLTable(Func):
4030    arg_types = {"this": True, "passing": False, "columns": False, "by_ref": False}
4031
4032
4033class Year(Func):
4034    pass
4035
4036
4037class Use(Expression):
4038    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
4039
4040
4041class Merge(Expression):
4042    arg_types = {"this": True, "using": True, "on": True, "expressions": True}
4043
4044
4045class When(Func):
4046    arg_types = {"matched": True, "source": False, "condition": False, "then": True}
4047
4048
4049def _norm_arg(arg):
4050    return arg.lower() if type(arg) is str else arg
4051
4052
4053ALL_FUNCTIONS = subclasses(__name__, Func, (AggFunc, Anonymous, Func))
4054
4055
4056# Helpers
4057@t.overload
4058def maybe_parse(
4059    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
4060    *,
4061    into: t.Type[E],
4062    dialect: DialectType = None,
4063    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
4064    copy: bool = False,
4065    **opts,
4066) -> E:
4067    ...
4068
4069
4070@t.overload
4071def maybe_parse(
4072    sql_or_expression: str | E,
4073    *,
4074    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
4075    dialect: DialectType = None,
4076    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
4077    copy: bool = False,
4078    **opts,
4079) -> E:
4080    ...
4081
4082
4083def maybe_parse(
4084    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
4085    *,
4086    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
4087    dialect: DialectType = None,
4088    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
4089    copy: bool = False,
4090    **opts,
4091) -> Expression:
4092    """Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.
4093
4094    Example:
4095        >>> maybe_parse("1")
4096        (LITERAL this: 1, is_string: False)
4097        >>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
4098        (IDENTIFIER this: x, quoted: False)
4099
4100    Args:
4101        sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
4102        into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
4103        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
4104            input expression is a SQL string).
4105        prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed
4106            (automatically includes a space)
4107        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
4108        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4109            that an input expression is a SQL string).
4110
4111    Returns:
4112        Expression: the parsed or given expression.
4113    """
4114    if isinstance(sql_or_expression, Expression):
4115        if copy:
4116            return sql_or_expression.copy()
4117        return sql_or_expression
4118
4119    import sqlglot
4120
4121    sql = str(sql_or_expression)
4122    if prefix:
4123        sql = f"{prefix} {sql}"
4124    return sqlglot.parse_one(sql, read=dialect, into=into, **opts)
4125
4126
4127def _maybe_copy(instance, copy=True):
4128    return instance.copy() if copy else instance
4129
4130
4131def _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
4132    return isinstance(expression, Expression) and not isinstance(expression, into)
4133
4134
4135def _apply_builder(
4136    expression,
4137    instance,
4138    arg,
4139    copy=True,
4140    prefix=None,
4141    into=None,
4142    dialect=None,
4143    **opts,
4144):
4145    if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
4146        expression = into(this=expression)
4147    instance = _maybe_copy(instance, copy)
4148    expression = maybe_parse(
4149        sql_or_expression=expression,
4150        prefix=prefix,
4151        into=into,
4152        dialect=dialect,
4153        **opts,
4154    )
4155    instance.set(arg, expression)
4156    return instance
4157
4158
4159def _apply_child_list_builder(
4160    *expressions,
4161    instance,
4162    arg,
4163    append=True,
4164    copy=True,
4165    prefix=None,
4166    into=None,
4167    dialect=None,
4168    properties=None,
4169    **opts,
4170):
4171    instance = _maybe_copy(instance, copy)
4172    parsed = []
4173    for expression in expressions:
4174        if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
4175            expression = into(expressions=[expression])
4176        expression = maybe_parse(
4177            expression,
4178            into=into,
4179            dialect=dialect,
4180            prefix=prefix,
4181            **opts,
4182        )
4183        parsed.extend(expression.expressions)
4184
4185    existing = instance.args.get(arg)
4186    if append and existing:
4187        parsed = existing.expressions + parsed
4188
4189    child = into(expressions=parsed)
4190    for k, v in (properties or {}).items():
4191        child.set(k, v)
4192    instance.set(arg, child)
4193    return instance
4194
4195
4196def _apply_list_builder(
4197    *expressions,
4198    instance,
4199    arg,
4200    append=True,
4201    copy=True,
4202    prefix=None,
4203    into=None,
4204    dialect=None,
4205    **opts,
4206):
4207    inst = _maybe_copy(instance, copy)
4208
4209    expressions = [
4210        maybe_parse(
4211            sql_or_expression=expression,
4212            into=into,
4213            prefix=prefix,
4214            dialect=dialect,
4215            **opts,
4216        )
4217        for expression in expressions
4218    ]
4219
4220    existing_expressions = inst.args.get(arg)
4221    if append and existing_expressions:
4222        expressions = existing_expressions + expressions
4223
4224    inst.set(arg, expressions)
4225    return inst
4226
4227
4228def _apply_conjunction_builder(
4229    *expressions,
4230    instance,
4231    arg,
4232    into=None,
4233    append=True,
4234    copy=True,
4235    dialect=None,
4236    **opts,
4237):
4238    expressions = [exp for exp in expressions if exp is not None and exp != ""]
4239    if not expressions:
4240        return instance
4241
4242    inst = _maybe_copy(instance, copy)
4243
4244    existing = inst.args.get(arg)
4245    if append and existing is not None:
4246        expressions = [existing.this if into else existing] + list(expressions)
4247
4248    node = and_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4249
4250    inst.set(arg, into(this=node) if into else node)
4251    return inst
4252
4253
4254def _combine(expressions, operator, dialect=None, **opts):
4255    expressions = [condition(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts) for expression in expressions]
4256    this = expressions[0]
4257    if expressions[1:]:
4258        this = _wrap_operator(this)
4259    for expression in expressions[1:]:
4260        this = operator(this=this, expression=_wrap_operator(expression))
4261    return this
4262
4263
4264def _wrap_operator(expression):
4265    if isinstance(expression, (And, Or, Not)):
4266        expression = Paren(this=expression)
4267    return expression
4268
4269
4270def union(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4271    """
4272    Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.
4273
4274    Example:
4275        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
4276        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
4277
4278    Args:
4279        left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
4280            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4281        right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
4282            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4283        distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
4284        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4285        opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4286    Returns:
4287        Union: the syntax tree for the UNION expression.
4288    """
4289    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4290    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4291
4292    return Union(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
4293
4294
4295def intersect(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4296    """
4297    Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.
4298
4299    Example:
4300        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
4301        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
4302
4303    Args:
4304        left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
4305            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4306        right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
4307            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4308        distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
4309        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4310        opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4311    Returns:
4312        Intersect: the syntax tree for the INTERSECT expression.
4313    """
4314    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4315    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4316
4317    return Intersect(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
4318
4319
4320def except_(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4321    """
4322    Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.
4323
4324    Example:
4325        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
4326        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
4327
4328    Args:
4329        left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
4330            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4331        right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
4332            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4333        distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
4334        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4335        opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4336    Returns:
4337        Except: the syntax tree for the EXCEPT statement.
4338    """
4339    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4340    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4341
4342    return Except(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
4343
4344
4345def select(*expressions: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
4346    """
4347    Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.
4348
4349    Example:
4350        >>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
4351        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
4352
4353    Args:
4354        *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a
4355            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4356        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
4357            input expression is a SQL string).
4358        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4359            that an input expression is a SQL string).
4360
4361    Returns:
4362        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
4363    """
4364    return Select().select(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4365
4366
4367def from_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> Select:
4368    """
4369    Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.
4370
4371    Example:
4372        >>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
4373        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
4374
4375    Args:
4376        *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a
4377            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4378        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
4379            input expression is a SQL string).
4380        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4381            that the input expression is a SQL string).
4382
4383    Returns:
4384        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
4385    """
4386    return Select().from_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4387
4388
4389def update(
4390    table: str | Table,
4391    properties: dict,
4392    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4393    from_: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4394    dialect: DialectType = None,
4395    **opts,
4396) -> Update:
4397    """
4398    Creates an update statement.
4399
4400    Example:
4401        >>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
4402        "UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
4403
4404    Args:
4405        *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are
4406            auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
4407        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
4408        from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
4409        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
4410        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4411
4412    Returns:
4413        Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.
4414    """
4415    update_expr = Update(this=maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect))
4416    update_expr.set(
4417        "expressions",
4418        [
4419            EQ(this=maybe_parse(k, dialect=dialect, **opts), expression=convert(v))
4420            for k, v in properties.items()
4421        ],
4422    )
4423    if from_:
4424        update_expr.set(
4425            "from",
4426            maybe_parse(from_, into=From, dialect=dialect, prefix="FROM", **opts),
4427        )
4428    if isinstance(where, Condition):
4429        where = Where(this=where)
4430    if where:
4431        update_expr.set(
4432            "where",
4433            maybe_parse(where, into=Where, dialect=dialect, prefix="WHERE", **opts),
4434        )
4435    return update_expr
4436
4437
4438def delete(
4439    table: ExpOrStr,
4440    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4441    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4442    dialect: DialectType = None,
4443    **opts,
4444) -> Delete:
4445    """
4446    Builds a delete statement.
4447
4448    Example:
4449        >>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
4450        'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
4451
4452    Args:
4453        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
4454        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
4455        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
4456        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4457
4458    Returns:
4459        Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.
4460    """
4461    delete_expr = Delete().delete(table, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
4462    if where:
4463        delete_expr = delete_expr.where(where, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
4464    if returning:
4465        delete_expr = delete_expr.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
4466    return delete_expr
4467
4468
4469def condition(expression, dialect=None, **opts) -> Condition:
4470    """
4471    Initialize a logical condition expression.
4472
4473    Example:
4474        >>> condition("x=1").sql()
4475        'x = 1'
4476
4477        This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:
4478        >>> where = condition("x=1")
4479        >>> where = where.and_("y=1")
4480        >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
4481        'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
4482
4483    Args:
4484        *expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
4485            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4486        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
4487            input expression is a SQL string).
4488        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4489            that the input expression is a SQL string).
4490
4491    Returns:
4492        Condition: the expression
4493    """
4494    return maybe_parse(  # type: ignore
4495        expression,
4496        into=Condition,
4497        dialect=dialect,
4498        **opts,
4499    )
4500
4501
4502def and_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> And:
4503    """
4504    Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.
4505
4506    Example:
4507        >>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
4508        'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
4509
4510    Args:
4511        *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4512            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4513        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4514        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4515
4516    Returns:
4517        And: the new condition
4518    """
4519    return _combine(expressions, And, dialect, **opts)
4520
4521
4522def or_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> Or:
4523    """
4524    Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.
4525
4526    Example:
4527        >>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
4528        'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
4529
4530    Args:
4531        *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4532            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4533        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4534        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4535
4536    Returns:
4537        Or: the new condition
4538    """
4539    return _combine(expressions, Or, dialect, **opts)
4540
4541
4542def not_(expression, dialect=None, **opts) -> Not:
4543    """
4544    Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.
4545
4546    Example:
4547        >>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
4548        "NOT this_suit = 'black'"
4549
4550    Args:
4551        expression (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4552            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4553        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4554        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4555
4556    Returns:
4557        Not: the new condition
4558    """
4559    this = condition(
4560        expression,
4561        dialect=dialect,
4562        **opts,
4563    )
4564    return Not(this=_wrap_operator(this))
4565
4566
4567def paren(expression) -> Paren:
4568    return Paren(this=expression)
4569
4570
4571SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE = re.compile(r"^[_a-zA-Z][\w]*$")
4572
4573
4574@t.overload
4575def to_identifier(name: None, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None) -> None:
4576    ...
4577
4578
4579@t.overload
4580def to_identifier(name: str | Identifier, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None) -> Identifier:
4581    ...
4582
4583
4584def to_identifier(name, quoted=None):
4585    """Builds an identifier.
4586
4587    Args:
4588        name: The name to turn into an identifier.
4589        quoted: Whether or not force quote the identifier.
4590
4591    Returns:
4592        The identifier ast node.
4593    """
4594
4595    if name is None:
4596        return None
4597
4598    if isinstance(name, Identifier):
4599        identifier = name
4600    elif isinstance(name, str):
4601        identifier = Identifier(
4602            this=name,
4603            quoted=not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(name) if quoted is None else quoted,
4604        )
4605    else:
4606        raise ValueError(f"Name needs to be a string or an Identifier, got: {name.__class__}")
4607    return identifier
4608
4609
4610INTERVAL_STRING_RE = re.compile(r"\s*([0-9]+)\s*([a-zA-Z]+)\s*")
4611
4612
4613def to_interval(interval: str | Literal) -> Interval:
4614    """Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'."""
4615    if isinstance(interval, Literal):
4616        if not interval.is_string:
4617            raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
4618
4619        interval = interval.this
4620
4621    interval_parts = INTERVAL_STRING_RE.match(interval)  # type: ignore
4622
4623    if not interval_parts:
4624        raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
4625
4626    return Interval(
4627        this=Literal.string(interval_parts.group(1)),
4628        unit=Var(this=interval_parts.group(2)),
4629    )
4630
4631
4632@t.overload
4633def to_table(sql_path: str | Table, **kwargs) -> Table:
4634    ...
4635
4636
4637@t.overload
4638def to_table(sql_path: None, **kwargs) -> None:
4639    ...
4640
4641
4642def to_table(sql_path: t.Optional[str | Table], **kwargs) -> t.Optional[Table]:
4643    """
4644    Create a table expression from a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` sql path. Catalog and schema are optional.
4645    If a table is passed in then that table is returned.
4646
4647    Args:
4648        sql_path: a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` string.
4649
4650    Returns:
4651        A table expression.
4652    """
4653    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Table):
4654        return sql_path
4655    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
4656        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for a table: {type(sql_path)}")
4657
4658    catalog, db, table_name = (to_identifier(x) for x in split_num_words(sql_path, ".", 3))
4659    return Table(this=table_name, db=db, catalog=catalog, **kwargs)
4660
4661
4662def to_column(sql_path: str | Column, **kwargs) -> Column:
4663    """
4664    Create a column from a `[table].[column]` sql path. Schema is optional.
4665
4666    If a column is passed in then that column is returned.
4667
4668    Args:
4669        sql_path: `[table].[column]` string
4670    Returns:
4671        Table: A column expression
4672    """
4673    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Column):
4674        return sql_path
4675    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
4676        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for column: {type(sql_path)}")
4677    return column(*reversed(sql_path.split(".")), **kwargs)  # type: ignore
4678
4679
4680def alias_(
4681    expression: ExpOrStr,
4682    alias: str | Identifier,
4683    table: bool | t.Sequence[str | Identifier] = False,
4684    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
4685    dialect: DialectType = None,
4686    **opts,
4687):
4688    """Create an Alias expression.
4689
4690    Example:
4691        >>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
4692        'foo AS bar'
4693
4694        >>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
4695        '(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
4696
4697    Args:
4698        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
4699            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4700        alias: the alias name to use. If the name has
4701            special characters it is quoted.
4702        table: Whether or not to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
4703        quoted: whether or not to quote the alias
4704        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4705        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4706
4707    Returns:
4708        Alias: the aliased expression
4709    """
4710    exp = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4711    alias = to_identifier(alias, quoted=quoted)
4712
4713    if table:
4714        table_alias = TableAlias(this=alias)
4715        exp.set("alias", table_alias)
4716
4717        if not isinstance(table, bool):
4718            for column in table:
4719                table_alias.append("columns", to_identifier(column, quoted=quoted))
4720
4721        return exp
4722
4723    # We don't set the "alias" arg for Window expressions, because that would add an IDENTIFIER node in
4724    # the AST, representing a "named_window" [1] construct (eg. bigquery). What we want is an ALIAS node
4725    # for the complete Window expression.
4726    #
4727    # [1]: https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/window-function-calls
4728
4729    if "alias" in exp.arg_types and not isinstance(exp, Window):
4730        exp = exp.copy()
4731        exp.set("alias", alias)
4732        return exp
4733    return Alias(this=exp, alias=alias)
4734
4735
4736def subquery(expression, alias=None, dialect=None, **opts):
4737    """
4738    Build a subquery expression.
4739
4740    Example:
4741        >>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
4742        'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
4743
4744    Args:
4745        expression (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4746            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4747        alias (str | Expression): the alias name to use.
4748        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4749        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4750
4751    Returns:
4752        Select: a new select with the subquery expression included
4753    """
4754
4755    expression = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts).subquery(alias)
4756    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4757
4758
4759def column(
4760    col: str | Identifier,
4761    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
4762    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
4763    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
4764    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
4765) -> Column:
4766    """
4767    Build a Column.
4768
4769    Args:
4770        col: column name
4771        table: table name
4772        db: db name
4773        catalog: catalog name
4774        quoted: whether or not to force quote each part
4775    Returns:
4776        Column: column instance
4777    """
4778    return Column(
4779        this=to_identifier(col, quoted=quoted),
4780        table=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted),
4781        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted),
4782        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted),
4783    )
4784
4785
4786def cast(expression: ExpOrStr, to: str | DataType | DataType.Type, **opts) -> Cast:
4787    """Cast an expression to a data type.
4788
4789    Example:
4790        >>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
4791        'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
4792
4793    Args:
4794        expression: The expression to cast.
4795        to: The datatype to cast to.
4796
4797    Returns:
4798        A cast node.
4799    """
4800    expression = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
4801    return Cast(this=expression, to=DataType.build(to, **opts))
4802
4803
4804def table_(table, db=None, catalog=None, quoted=None, alias=None) -> Table:
4805    """Build a Table.
4806
4807    Args:
4808        table (str | Expression): column name
4809        db (str | Expression): db name
4810        catalog (str | Expression): catalog name
4811
4812    Returns:
4813        Table: table instance
4814    """
4815    return Table(
4816        this=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted),
4817        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted),
4818        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted),
4819        alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
4820    )
4821
4822
4823def values(
4824    values: t.Iterable[t.Tuple[t.Any, ...]],
4825    alias: t.Optional[str] = None,
4826    columns: t.Optional[t.Iterable[str] | t.Dict[str, DataType]] = None,
4827) -> Values:
4828    """Build VALUES statement.
4829
4830    Example:
4831        >>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
4832        "VALUES (1, '2')"
4833
4834    Args:
4835        values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
4836        alias: optional alias
4837        columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types.
4838         If either are provided then an alias is also required.
4839         If a dictionary is provided then the first column of the values will be casted to the expected type
4840         in order to help with type inference.
4841
4842    Returns:
4843        Values: the Values expression object
4844    """
4845    if columns and not alias:
4846        raise ValueError("Alias is required when providing columns")
4847    table_alias = (
4848        TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias), columns=[to_identifier(x) for x in columns])
4849        if columns
4850        else TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias) if alias else None)
4851    )
4852    expressions = [convert(tup) for tup in values]
4853    if columns and isinstance(columns, dict):
4854        types = list(columns.values())
4855        expressions[0].set(
4856            "expressions",
4857            [cast(x, types[i]) for i, x in enumerate(expressions[0].expressions)],
4858        )
4859    return Values(
4860        expressions=expressions,
4861        alias=table_alias,
4862    )
4863
4864
4865def var(name: t.Optional[ExpOrStr]) -> Var:
4866    """Build a SQL variable.
4867
4868    Example:
4869        >>> repr(var('x'))
4870        '(VAR this: x)'
4871
4872        >>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
4873        '(VAR this: x)'
4874
4875    Args:
4876        name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
4877
4878    Returns:
4879        The new variable node.
4880    """
4881    if not name:
4882        raise ValueError("Cannot convert empty name into var.")
4883
4884    if isinstance(name, Expression):
4885        name = name.name
4886    return Var(this=name)
4887
4888
4889def rename_table(old_name: str | Table, new_name: str | Table) -> AlterTable:
4890    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression
4891
4892    Args:
4893        old_name: The old name of the table
4894        new_name: The new name of the table
4895
4896    Returns:
4897        Alter table expression
4898    """
4899    old_table = to_table(old_name)
4900    new_table = to_table(new_name)
4901    return AlterTable(
4902        this=old_table,
4903        actions=[
4904            RenameTable(this=new_table),
4905        ],
4906    )
4907
4908
4909def convert(value) -> Expression:
4910    """Convert a python value into an expression object.
4911
4912    Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.
4913
4914    Args:
4915        value (Any): a python object
4916
4917    Returns:
4918        Expression: the equivalent expression object
4919    """
4920    if isinstance(value, Expression):
4921        return value
4922    if value is None:
4923        return NULL
4924    if isinstance(value, bool):
4925        return Boolean(this=value)
4926    if isinstance(value, str):
4927        return Literal.string(value)
4928    if isinstance(value, float) and math.isnan(value):
4929        return NULL
4930    if isinstance(value, numbers.Number):
4931        return Literal.number(value)
4932    if isinstance(value, tuple):
4933        return Tuple(expressions=[convert(v) for v in value])
4934    if isinstance(value, list):
4935        return Array(expressions=[convert(v) for v in value])
4936    if isinstance(value, dict):
4937        return Map(
4938            keys=[convert(k) for k in value],
4939            values=[convert(v) for v in value.values()],
4940        )
4941    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
4942        datetime_literal = Literal.string(
4943            (value if value.tzinfo else value.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)).isoformat()
4944        )
4945        return TimeStrToTime(this=datetime_literal)
4946    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
4947        date_literal = Literal.string(value.strftime("%Y-%m-%d"))
4948        return DateStrToDate(this=date_literal)
4949    raise ValueError(f"Cannot convert {value}")
4950
4951
4952def replace_children(expression, fun, *args, **kwargs):
4953    """
4954    Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.
4955    """
4956    for k, v in expression.args.items():
4957        is_list_arg = type(v) is list
4958
4959        child_nodes = v if is_list_arg else [v]
4960        new_child_nodes = []
4961
4962        for cn in child_nodes:
4963            if isinstance(cn, Expression):
4964                for child_node in ensure_collection(fun(cn, *args, **kwargs)):
4965                    new_child_nodes.append(child_node)
4966                    child_node.parent = expression
4967                    child_node.arg_key = k
4968            else:
4969                new_child_nodes.append(cn)
4970
4971        expression.args[k] = new_child_nodes if is_list_arg else seq_get(new_child_nodes, 0)
4972
4973
4974def column_table_names(expression):
4975    """
4976    Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.
4977
4978    Example:
4979        >>> import sqlglot
4980        >>> column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e"))
4981        ['c', 'a']
4982
4983    Args:
4984        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression to find table names
4985
4986    Returns:
4987        list: A list of unique names
4988    """
4989    return list(dict.fromkeys(column.table for column in expression.find_all(Column)))
4990
4991
4992def table_name(table) -> str:
4993    """Get the full name of a table as a string.
4994
4995    Args:
4996        table (exp.Table | str): table expression node or string.
4997
4998    Examples:
4999        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
5000        >>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
5001        'a.b.c'
5002
5003    Returns:
5004        The table name.
5005    """
5006
5007    table = maybe_parse(table, into=Table)
5008
5009    if not table:
5010        raise ValueError(f"Cannot parse {table}")
5011
5012    return ".".join(
5013        part
5014        for part in (
5015            table.text("catalog"),
5016            table.text("db"),
5017            table.name,
5018        )
5019        if part
5020    )
5021
5022
5023def replace_tables(expression, mapping):
5024    """Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.
5025
5026    Args:
5027        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression node to be transformed and replaced.
5028        mapping (Dict[str, str]): mapping of table names.
5029
5030    Examples:
5031        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
5032        >>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
5033        'SELECT * FROM c'
5034
5035    Returns:
5036        The mapped expression.
5037    """
5038
5039    def _replace_tables(node):
5040        if isinstance(node, Table):
5041            new_name = mapping.get(table_name(node))
5042            if new_name:
5043                return to_table(
5044                    new_name,
5045                    **{k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if k not in ("this", "db", "catalog")},
5046                )
5047        return node
5048
5049    return expression.transform(_replace_tables)
5050
5051
5052def replace_placeholders(expression, *args, **kwargs):
5053    """Replace placeholders in an expression.
5054
5055    Args:
5056        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression node to be transformed and replaced.
5057        args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
5058        kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
5059
5060    Examples:
5061        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
5062        >>> replace_placeholders(
5063        ...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
5064        ...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
5065        ... ).sql()
5066        "SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
5067
5068    Returns:
5069        The mapped expression.
5070    """
5071
5072    def _replace_placeholders(node, args, **kwargs):
5073        if isinstance(node, Placeholder):
5074            if node.name:
5075                new_name = kwargs.get(node.name)
5076                if new_name:
5077                    return convert(new_name)
5078            else:
5079                try:
5080                    return convert(next(args))
5081                except StopIteration:
5082                    pass
5083        return node
5084
5085    return expression.transform(_replace_placeholders, iter(args), **kwargs)
5086
5087
5088def expand(
5089    expression: Expression, sources: t.Dict[str, Subqueryable], copy: bool = True
5090) -> Expression:
5091    """Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.
5092
5093    Examples:
5094        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
5095        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
5096        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
5097
5098        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
5099        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
5100
5101    Args:
5102        expression: The expression to expand.
5103        sources: A dictionary of name to Subqueryables.
5104        copy: Whether or not to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
5105
5106    Returns:
5107        The transformed expression.
5108    """
5109
5110    def _expand(node: Expression):
5111        if isinstance(node, Table):
5112            name = table_name(node)
5113            source = sources.get(name)
5114            if source:
5115                subquery = source.subquery(node.alias or name)
5116                subquery.comments = [f"source: {name}"]
5117                return subquery.transform(_expand, copy=False)
5118        return node
5119
5120    return expression.transform(_expand, copy=copy)
5121
5122
5123def func(name: str, *args, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs) -> Func:
5124    """
5125    Returns a Func expression.
5126
5127    Examples:
5128        >>> func("abs", 5).sql()
5129        'ABS(5)'
5130
5131        >>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
5132        'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
5133
5134    Args:
5135        name: the name of the function to build.
5136        args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
5137        dialect: the source dialect.
5138        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
5139
5140    Note:
5141        The arguments `args` and `kwargs` are mutually exclusive.
5142
5143    Returns:
5144        An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if `name` doesn't
5145        correspond to an existing `sqlglot.expressions.Func` class.
5146    """
5147    if args and kwargs:
5148        raise ValueError("Can't use both args and kwargs to instantiate a function.")
5149
5150    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import Dialect
5151
5152    converted = [convert(arg) for arg in args]
5153    kwargs = {key: convert(value) for key, value in kwargs.items()}
5154
5155    parser = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().parser()
5156    from_args_list = parser.FUNCTIONS.get(name.upper())
5157
5158    if from_args_list:
5159        function = from_args_list(converted) if converted else from_args_list.__self__(**kwargs)  # type: ignore
5160    else:
5161        kwargs = kwargs or {"expressions": converted}
5162        function = Anonymous(this=name, **kwargs)
5163
5164    for error_message in function.error_messages(converted):
5165        raise ValueError(error_message)
5166
5167    return function
5168
5169
5170def true():
5171    """
5172    Returns a true Boolean expression.
5173    """
5174    return Boolean(this=True)
5175
5176
5177def false():
5178    """
5179    Returns a false Boolean expression.
5180    """
5181    return Boolean(this=False)
5182
5183
5184def null():
5185    """
5186    Returns a Null expression.
5187    """
5188    return Null()
5189
5190
5191# TODO: deprecate this
5192TRUE = Boolean(this=True)
5193FALSE = Boolean(this=False)
5194NULL = Null()
class Expression:
 57class Expression(metaclass=_Expression):
 58    """
 59    The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary
 60    context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression
 61    is optional or not.
 62
 63    Attributes:
 64        key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing
 65            and representing expressions as strings.
 66        arg_types: determines what arguments (child nodes) are supported by an expression. It
 67            maps arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
 68
 69    Example:
 70        >>> class Foo(Expression):
 71        ...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
 72
 73        The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called
 74        "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".
 75
 76    Args:
 77        args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
 78        parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
 79        arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression
 80            uses to refer to it.
 81        comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in
 82            order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
 83        _type: the `sqlglot.expressions.DataType` type of an expression. This is inferred by the
 84            optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
 85    """
 86
 87    key = "expression"
 88    arg_types = {"this": True}
 89    __slots__ = ("args", "parent", "arg_key", "comments", "_type", "_meta", "_hash")
 90
 91    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
 92        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
 93        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
 94        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
 95        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
 96        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
 97        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
 98        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
 99
100        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
101            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
102
103    def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
104        return type(self) is type(other) and hash(self) == hash(other)
105
106    @property
107    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
108        args = (self.args.get(k) for k in self.arg_types)
109
110        return tuple(
111            (tuple(_norm_arg(a) for a in arg) if arg else None)
112            if type(arg) is list
113            else (_norm_arg(arg) if arg is not None and arg is not False else None)
114            for arg in args
115        )
116
117    def __hash__(self) -> int:
118        if self._hash is not None:
119            return self._hash
120
121        return hash((self.__class__, self.hashable_args))
122
123    @property
124    def this(self):
125        """
126        Retrieves the argument with key "this".
127        """
128        return self.args.get("this")
129
130    @property
131    def expression(self):
132        """
133        Retrieves the argument with key "expression".
134        """
135        return self.args.get("expression")
136
137    @property
138    def expressions(self):
139        """
140        Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".
141        """
142        return self.args.get("expressions") or []
143
144    def text(self, key) -> str:
145        """
146        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
147        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
148        """
149        field = self.args.get(key)
150        if isinstance(field, str):
151            return field
152        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
153            return field.this
154        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
155            return field.name
156        return ""
157
158    @property
159    def is_string(self) -> bool:
160        """
161        Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.
162        """
163        return isinstance(self, Literal) and self.args["is_string"]
164
165    @property
166    def is_number(self) -> bool:
167        """
168        Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.
169        """
170        return isinstance(self, Literal) and not self.args["is_string"]
171
172    @property
173    def is_int(self) -> bool:
174        """
175        Checks whether a Literal expression is an integer.
176        """
177        if self.is_number:
178            try:
179                int(self.name)
180                return True
181            except ValueError:
182                pass
183        return False
184
185    @property
186    def is_star(self) -> bool:
187        """Checks whether an expression is a star."""
188        return isinstance(self, Star) or (isinstance(self, Column) and isinstance(self.this, Star))
189
190    @property
191    def alias(self) -> str:
192        """
193        Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.
194        """
195        if isinstance(self.args.get("alias"), TableAlias):
196            return self.args["alias"].name
197        return self.text("alias")
198
199    @property
200    def name(self) -> str:
201        return self.text("this")
202
203    @property
204    def alias_or_name(self):
205        return self.alias or self.name
206
207    @property
208    def output_name(self):
209        """
210        Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.
211
212        If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.
213
214        Example:
215            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
216            >>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
217            'a'
218            >>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
219            'c'
220            >>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
221            ''
222        """
223        return ""
224
225    @property
226    def type(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
227        return self._type
228
229    @type.setter
230    def type(self, dtype: t.Optional[DataType | DataType.Type | str]) -> None:
231        if dtype and not isinstance(dtype, DataType):
232            dtype = DataType.build(dtype)
233        self._type = dtype  # type: ignore
234
235    @property
236    def meta(self) -> t.Dict[str, t.Any]:
237        if self._meta is None:
238            self._meta = {}
239        return self._meta
240
241    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
242        copy = self.__class__(**deepcopy(self.args))
243        if self.comments is not None:
244            copy.comments = deepcopy(self.comments)
245
246        if self._type is not None:
247            copy._type = self._type.copy()
248
249        if self._meta is not None:
250            copy._meta = deepcopy(self._meta)
251
252        return copy
253
254    def copy(self):
255        """
256        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
257        """
258        new = deepcopy(self)
259        new.parent = self.parent
260        return new
261
262    def append(self, arg_key, value):
263        """
264        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
265
266        Args:
267            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
268            value (Any): value to append to the list
269        """
270        if not isinstance(self.args.get(arg_key), list):
271            self.args[arg_key] = []
272        self.args[arg_key].append(value)
273        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
274
275    def set(self, arg_key, value):
276        """
277        Sets `arg_key` to `value`.
278
279        Args:
280            arg_key (str): name of the expression arg.
281            value: value to set the arg to.
282        """
283        self.args[arg_key] = value
284        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
285
286    def _set_parent(self, arg_key, value):
287        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
288            value.parent = self
289            value.arg_key = arg_key
290        elif type(value) is list:
291            for v in value:
292                if hasattr(v, "parent"):
293                    v.parent = self
294                    v.arg_key = arg_key
295
296    @property
297    def depth(self):
298        """
299        Returns the depth of this tree.
300        """
301        if self.parent:
302            return self.parent.depth + 1
303        return 0
304
305    def iter_expressions(self) -> t.Iterator[t.Tuple[str, Expression]]:
306        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
307        for k, vs in self.args.items():
308            if type(vs) is list:
309                for v in vs:
310                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
311                        yield k, v
312            else:
313                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
314                    yield k, vs
315
316    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs=True) -> E | None:
317        """
318        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
319        the specified types.
320
321        Args:
322            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
323
324        Returns:
325            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
326        """
327        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)
328
329    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs=True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
330        """
331        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
332        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
333
334        Args:
335            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
336
337        Returns:
338            The generator object.
339        """
340        for expression, *_ in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
341            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
342                yield expression
343
344    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> E | None:
345        """
346        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
347
348        Args:
349            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
350
351        Returns:
352            The parent node.
353        """
354        ancestor = self.parent
355        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
356            ancestor = ancestor.parent
357        return t.cast(E, ancestor)
358
359    @property
360    def parent_select(self):
361        """
362        Returns the parent select statement.
363        """
364        return self.find_ancestor(Select)
365
366    @property
367    def same_parent(self):
368        """Returns if the parent is the same class as itself."""
369        return type(self.parent) is self.__class__
370
371    def root(self) -> Expression:
372        """
373        Returns the root expression of this tree.
374        """
375        expression = self
376        while expression.parent:
377            expression = expression.parent
378        return expression
379
380    def walk(self, bfs=True, prune=None):
381        """
382        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
383
384        Args:
385            bfs (bool): if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
386                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
387            prune ((node, parent, arg_key) -> bool): callable that returns True if
388                the generator should stop traversing this branch of the tree.
389
390        Returns:
391            the generator object.
392        """
393        if bfs:
394            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
395        else:
396            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)
397
398    def dfs(self, parent=None, key=None, prune=None):
399        """
400        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
401        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
402
403        Returns:
404            The generator object.
405        """
406        parent = parent or self.parent
407        yield self, parent, key
408        if prune and prune(self, parent, key):
409            return
410
411        for k, v in self.iter_expressions():
412            yield from v.dfs(self, k, prune)
413
414    def bfs(self, prune=None):
415        """
416        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
417        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
418
419        Returns:
420            The generator object.
421        """
422        queue = deque([(self, self.parent, None)])
423
424        while queue:
425            item, parent, key = queue.popleft()
426
427            yield item, parent, key
428            if prune and prune(item, parent, key):
429                continue
430
431            for k, v in item.iter_expressions():
432                queue.append((v, item, k))
433
434    def unnest(self):
435        """
436        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
437        """
438        expression = self
439        while type(expression) is Paren:
440            expression = expression.this
441        return expression
442
443    def unalias(self):
444        """
445        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
446        """
447        if isinstance(self, Alias):
448            return self.this
449        return self
450
451    def unnest_operands(self):
452        """
453        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
454        """
455        return tuple(arg.unnest() for _, arg in self.iter_expressions())
456
457    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
458        """
459        Returns a generator which yields child nodes who's parents are the same class.
460
461        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
462        """
463        for node, _, _ in self.dfs(prune=lambda n, p, *_: p and not type(n) is self.__class__):
464            if not type(node) is self.__class__:
465                yield node.unnest() if unnest else node
466
467    def __str__(self):
468        return self.sql()
469
470    def __repr__(self):
471        return self._to_s()
472
473    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
474        """
475        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
476
477        Args:
478            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
479            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
480
481        Returns:
482            The SQL string.
483        """
484        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
485
486        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().generate(self, **opts)
487
488    def _to_s(self, hide_missing: bool = True, level: int = 0) -> str:
489        indent = "" if not level else "\n"
490        indent += "".join(["  "] * level)
491        left = f"({self.key.upper()} "
492
493        args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {
494            k: ", ".join(
495                v._to_s(hide_missing=hide_missing, level=level + 1)
496                if hasattr(v, "_to_s")
497                else str(v)
498                for v in ensure_list(vs)
499                if v is not None
500            )
501            for k, vs in self.args.items()
502        }
503        args["comments"] = self.comments
504        args["type"] = self.type
505        args = {k: v for k, v in args.items() if v or not hide_missing}
506
507        right = ", ".join(f"{k}: {v}" for k, v in args.items())
508        right += ")"
509
510        return indent + left + right
511
512    def transform(self, fun, *args, copy=True, **kwargs):
513        """
514        Recursively visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
515        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
516
517        Args:
518            fun (function): a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
519                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
520                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
521            copy (bool): if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
522                modified in place.
523
524        Returns:
525            The transformed tree.
526        """
527        node = self.copy() if copy else self
528        new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
529
530        if new_node is None or not isinstance(new_node, Expression):
531            return new_node
532        if new_node is not node:
533            new_node.parent = node.parent
534            return new_node
535
536        replace_children(new_node, lambda child: child.transform(fun, *args, copy=False, **kwargs))
537        return new_node
538
539    def replace(self, expression):
540        """
541        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
542
543        For example::
544
545            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
546            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(Column(this="y"))
547            (COLUMN this: y)
548            >>> tree.sql()
549            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
550
551        Args:
552            expression (Expression|None): new node
553
554        Returns:
555            The new expression or expressions.
556        """
557        if not self.parent:
558            return expression
559
560        parent = self.parent
561        self.parent = None
562
563        replace_children(parent, lambda child: expression if child is self else child)
564        return expression
565
566    def pop(self):
567        """
568        Remove this expression from its AST.
569
570        Returns:
571            The popped expression.
572        """
573        self.replace(None)
574        return self
575
576    def assert_is(self, type_):
577        """
578        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
579
580        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
581        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
582
583        Examples:
584            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
585
586            >>> import sqlglot
587            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
588            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
589        """
590        assert isinstance(self, type_)
591        return self
592
593    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
594        """
595        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
596
597        Args:
598            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
599                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
600
601        Returns:
602            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
603        """
604        errors: t.List[str] = []
605
606        for k in self.args:
607            if k not in self.arg_types:
608                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
609        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
610            v = self.args.get(k)
611            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
612                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
613
614        if (
615            args
616            and isinstance(self, Func)
617            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
618            and not self.is_var_len_args
619        ):
620            errors.append(
621                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
622                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
623            )
624
625        return errors
626
627    def dump(self):
628        """
629        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
630        """
631        from sqlglot.serde import dump
632
633        return dump(self)
634
635    @classmethod
636    def load(cls, obj):
637        """
638        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
639        """
640        from sqlglot.serde import load
641
642        return load(obj)

The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression is optional or not.

Attributes:
  • key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing and representing expressions as strings.
  • arg_types: determines what arguments (child nodes) are supported by an expression. It maps arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
Example:
>>> class Foo(Expression):
...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}

The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".

Arguments:
  • args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
  • parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
  • arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression uses to refer to it.
  • comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
  • _type: the sqlglot.expressions.DataType type of an expression. This is inferred by the optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
Expression(**args: Any)
 91    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
 92        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
 93        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
 94        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
 95        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
 96        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
 97        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
 98        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
 99
100        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
101            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
this

Retrieves the argument with key "this".

expression

Retrieves the argument with key "expression".

expressions

Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".

def text(self, key) -> str:
144    def text(self, key) -> str:
145        """
146        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
147        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
148        """
149        field = self.args.get(key)
150        if isinstance(field, str):
151            return field
152        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
153            return field.this
154        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
155            return field.name
156        return ""

Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.

is_string: bool

Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.

is_number: bool

Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.

is_int: bool

Checks whether a Literal expression is an integer.

is_star: bool

Checks whether an expression is a star.

alias: str

Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.

output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
def copy(self):
254    def copy(self):
255        """
256        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
257        """
258        new = deepcopy(self)
259        new.parent = self.parent
260        return new

Returns a deep copy of the expression.

def append(self, arg_key, value):
262    def append(self, arg_key, value):
263        """
264        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
265
266        Args:
267            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
268            value (Any): value to append to the list
269        """
270        if not isinstance(self.args.get(arg_key), list):
271            self.args[arg_key] = []
272        self.args[arg_key].append(value)
273        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)

Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.

Arguments:
  • arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
  • value (Any): value to append to the list
def set(self, arg_key, value):
275    def set(self, arg_key, value):
276        """
277        Sets `arg_key` to `value`.
278
279        Args:
280            arg_key (str): name of the expression arg.
281            value: value to set the arg to.
282        """
283        self.args[arg_key] = value
284        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)

Sets arg_key to value.

Arguments:
  • arg_key (str): name of the expression arg.
  • value: value to set the arg to.
depth

Returns the depth of this tree.

def iter_expressions(self) -> Iterator[Tuple[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]:
305    def iter_expressions(self) -> t.Iterator[t.Tuple[str, Expression]]:
306        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
307        for k, vs in self.args.items():
308            if type(vs) is list:
309                for v in vs:
310                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
311                        yield k, v
312            else:
313                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
314                    yield k, vs

Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args.

def find(self, *expression_types: Type[~E], bfs=True) -> Optional[~E]:
316    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs=True) -> E | None:
317        """
318        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
319        the specified types.
320
321        Args:
322            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
323
324        Returns:
325            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
326        """
327        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)

Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of the specified types.

Arguments:
  • expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
Returns:

The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.

def find_all(self, *expression_types: Type[~E], bfs=True) -> Iterator[~E]:
329    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs=True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
330        """
331        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
332        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
333
334        Args:
335            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
336
337        Returns:
338            The generator object.
339        """
340        for expression, *_ in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
341            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
342                yield expression

Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.

Arguments:
  • expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
Returns:

The generator object.

def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: Type[~E]) -> Optional[~E]:
344    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> E | None:
345        """
346        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
347
348        Args:
349            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
350
351        Returns:
352            The parent node.
353        """
354        ancestor = self.parent
355        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
356            ancestor = ancestor.parent
357        return t.cast(E, ancestor)

Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.

Arguments:
  • expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
Returns:

The parent node.

parent_select

Returns the parent select statement.

same_parent

Returns if the parent is the same class as itself.

def root(self) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
371    def root(self) -> Expression:
372        """
373        Returns the root expression of this tree.
374        """
375        expression = self
376        while expression.parent:
377            expression = expression.parent
378        return expression

Returns the root expression of this tree.

def walk(self, bfs=True, prune=None):
380    def walk(self, bfs=True, prune=None):
381        """
382        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
383
384        Args:
385            bfs (bool): if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
386                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
387            prune ((node, parent, arg_key) -> bool): callable that returns True if
388                the generator should stop traversing this branch of the tree.
389
390        Returns:
391            the generator object.
392        """
393        if bfs:
394            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
395        else:
396            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)

Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.

Arguments:
  • bfs (bool): if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied, otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
  • prune ((node, parent, arg_key) -> bool): callable that returns True if the generator should stop traversing this branch of the tree.
Returns:

the generator object.

def dfs(self, parent=None, key=None, prune=None):
398    def dfs(self, parent=None, key=None, prune=None):
399        """
400        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
401        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
402
403        Returns:
404            The generator object.
405        """
406        parent = parent or self.parent
407        yield self, parent, key
408        if prune and prune(self, parent, key):
409            return
410
411        for k, v in self.iter_expressions():
412            yield from v.dfs(self, k, prune)

Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in the DFS (Depth-first) order.

Returns:

The generator object.

def bfs(self, prune=None):
414    def bfs(self, prune=None):
415        """
416        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
417        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
418
419        Returns:
420            The generator object.
421        """
422        queue = deque([(self, self.parent, None)])
423
424        while queue:
425            item, parent, key = queue.popleft()
426
427            yield item, parent, key
428            if prune and prune(item, parent, key):
429                continue
430
431            for k, v in item.iter_expressions():
432                queue.append((v, item, k))

Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in the BFS (Breadth-first) order.

Returns:

The generator object.

def unnest(self):
434    def unnest(self):
435        """
436        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
437        """
438        expression = self
439        while type(expression) is Paren:
440            expression = expression.this
441        return expression

Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.

def unalias(self):
443    def unalias(self):
444        """
445        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
446        """
447        if isinstance(self, Alias):
448            return self.this
449        return self

Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.

def unnest_operands(self):
451    def unnest_operands(self):
452        """
453        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
454        """
455        return tuple(arg.unnest() for _, arg in self.iter_expressions())

Returns unnested operands as a tuple.

def flatten(self, unnest=True):
457    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
458        """
459        Returns a generator which yields child nodes who's parents are the same class.
460
461        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
462        """
463        for node, _, _ in self.dfs(prune=lambda n, p, *_: p and not type(n) is self.__class__):
464            if not type(node) is self.__class__:
465                yield node.unnest() if unnest else node

Returns a generator which yields child nodes who's parents are the same class.

A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]

def sql( self, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **opts) -> str:
473    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
474        """
475        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
476
477        Args:
478            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
479            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
480
481        Returns:
482            The SQL string.
483        """
484        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
485
486        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().generate(self, **opts)

Returns SQL string representation of this tree.

Arguments:
  • dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
  • opts: other sqlglot.generator.Generator options.
Returns:

The SQL string.

def transform(self, fun, *args, copy=True, **kwargs):
512    def transform(self, fun, *args, copy=True, **kwargs):
513        """
514        Recursively visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
515        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
516
517        Args:
518            fun (function): a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
519                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
520                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
521            copy (bool): if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
522                modified in place.
523
524        Returns:
525            The transformed tree.
526        """
527        node = self.copy() if copy else self
528        new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
529
530        if new_node is None or not isinstance(new_node, Expression):
531            return new_node
532        if new_node is not node:
533            new_node.parent = node.parent
534            return new_node
535
536        replace_children(new_node, lambda child: child.transform(fun, *args, copy=False, **kwargs))
537        return new_node

Recursively visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones) and applies the given transformation function to each node.

Arguments:
  • fun (function): a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
  • copy (bool): if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is modified in place.
Returns:

The transformed tree.

def replace(self, expression):
539    def replace(self, expression):
540        """
541        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
542
543        For example::
544
545            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
546            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(Column(this="y"))
547            (COLUMN this: y)
548            >>> tree.sql()
549            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
550
551        Args:
552            expression (Expression|None): new node
553
554        Returns:
555            The new expression or expressions.
556        """
557        if not self.parent:
558            return expression
559
560        parent = self.parent
561        self.parent = None
562
563        replace_children(parent, lambda child: expression if child is self else child)
564        return expression

Swap out this expression with a new expression.

For example::

>>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
>>> tree.find(Column).replace(Column(this="y"))
(COLUMN this: y)
>>> tree.sql()
'SELECT y FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • expression (Expression|None): new node
Returns:

The new expression or expressions.

def pop(self):
566    def pop(self):
567        """
568        Remove this expression from its AST.
569
570        Returns:
571            The popped expression.
572        """
573        self.replace(None)
574        return self

Remove this expression from its AST.

Returns:

The popped expression.

def assert_is(self, type_):
576    def assert_is(self, type_):
577        """
578        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
579
580        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
581        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
582
583        Examples:
584            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
585
586            >>> import sqlglot
587            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
588            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
589        """
590        assert isinstance(self, type_)
591        return self

Assert that this Expression is an instance of type_.

If it is NOT an instance of type_, this raises an assertion error. Otherwise, this returns this expression.

Examples:

This is useful for type security in chained expressions:

>>> import sqlglot
>>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
'SELECT x, z FROM y'
def error_messages(self, args: Optional[Sequence] = None) -> List[str]:
593    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
594        """
595        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
596
597        Args:
598            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
599                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
600
601        Returns:
602            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
603        """
604        errors: t.List[str] = []
605
606        for k in self.args:
607            if k not in self.arg_types:
608                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
609        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
610            v = self.args.get(k)
611            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
612                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
613
614        if (
615            args
616            and isinstance(self, Func)
617            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
618            and not self.is_var_len_args
619        ):
620            errors.append(
621                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
622                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
623            )
624
625        return errors

Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).

Arguments:
  • args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
Returns:

A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.

def dump(self):
627    def dump(self):
628        """
629        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
630        """
631        from sqlglot.serde import dump
632
633        return dump(self)

Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.

@classmethod
def load(cls, obj):
635    @classmethod
636    def load(cls, obj):
637        """
638        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
639        """
640        from sqlglot.serde import load
641
642        return load(obj)

Load a dict (as returned by Expression.dump) into an Expression instance.

class Condition(Expression):
653class Condition(Expression):
654    def and_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
655        """
656        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
657
658        Example:
659            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
660            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
661
662        Args:
663            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
664                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
665            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
666            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
667
668        Returns:
669            And: the new condition.
670        """
671        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
672
673    def or_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
674        """
675        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
676
677        Example:
678            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
679            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
680
681        Args:
682            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
683                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
684            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
685            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
686
687        Returns:
688            Or: the new condition.
689        """
690        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
691
692    def not_(self):
693        """
694        Wrap this condition with NOT.
695
696        Example:
697            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
698            'NOT x = 1'
699
700        Returns:
701            Not: the new condition.
702        """
703        return not_(self)
def and_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
654    def and_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
655        """
656        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
657
658        Example:
659            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
660            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
661
662        Args:
663            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
664                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
665            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
666            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
667
668        Returns:
669            And: the new condition.
670        """
671        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)

AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.

Example:
>>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
'x = 1 AND y = 1'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

And: the new condition.

def or_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
673    def or_(self, *expressions, dialect=None, **opts):
674        """
675        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
676
677        Example:
678            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
679            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
680
681        Args:
682            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
683                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
684            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
685            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
686
687        Returns:
688            Or: the new condition.
689        """
690        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)

OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.

Example:
>>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
'x = 1 OR y = 1'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Or: the new condition.

def not_(self):
692    def not_(self):
693        """
694        Wrap this condition with NOT.
695
696        Example:
697            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
698            'NOT x = 1'
699
700        Returns:
701            Not: the new condition.
702        """
703        return not_(self)

Wrap this condition with NOT.

Example:
>>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
'NOT x = 1'
Returns:

Not: the new condition.

class Predicate(Condition):
706class Predicate(Condition):
707    """Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y."""

Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y.

class DerivedTable(Expression):
710class DerivedTable(Expression):
711    @property
712    def alias_column_names(self):
713        table_alias = self.args.get("alias")
714        if not table_alias:
715            return []
716        column_list = table_alias.assert_is(TableAlias).args.get("columns") or []
717        return [c.name for c in column_list]
718
719    @property
720    def selects(self):
721        alias = self.args.get("alias")
722
723        if alias:
724            return alias.columns
725        return []
726
727    @property
728    def named_selects(self):
729        return [select.output_name for select in self.selects]
class Unionable(Expression):
732class Unionable(Expression):
733    def union(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
734        """
735        Builds a UNION expression.
736
737        Example:
738            >>> import sqlglot
739            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
740            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
741
742        Args:
743            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
744                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
745            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
746            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
747            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
748        Returns:
749            Union: the Union expression.
750        """
751        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
752
753    def intersect(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
754        """
755        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
756
757        Example:
758            >>> import sqlglot
759            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
760            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
761
762        Args:
763            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
764                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
765            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
766            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
767            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
768        Returns:
769            Intersect: the Intersect expression
770        """
771        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
772
773    def except_(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
774        """
775        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
776
777        Example:
778            >>> import sqlglot
779            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
780            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
781
782        Args:
783            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
784                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
785            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
786            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
787            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
788        Returns:
789            Except: the Except expression
790        """
791        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
def union(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
733    def union(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
734        """
735        Builds a UNION expression.
736
737        Example:
738            >>> import sqlglot
739            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
740            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
741
742        Args:
743            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
744                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
745            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
746            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
747            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
748        Returns:
749            Union: the Union expression.
750        """
751        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)

Builds a UNION expression.

Example:
>>> import sqlglot
>>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Union: the Union expression.

def intersect(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
753    def intersect(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
754        """
755        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
756
757        Example:
758            >>> import sqlglot
759            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
760            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
761
762        Args:
763            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
764                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
765            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
766            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
767            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
768        Returns:
769            Intersect: the Intersect expression
770        """
771        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)

Builds an INTERSECT expression.

Example:
>>> import sqlglot
>>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Intersect: the Intersect expression

def except_(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
773    def except_(self, expression, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
774        """
775        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
776
777        Example:
778            >>> import sqlglot
779            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
780            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
781
782        Args:
783            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string.
784                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
785            distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
786            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
787            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
788        Returns:
789            Except: the Except expression
790        """
791        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)

Builds an EXCEPT expression.

Example:
>>> import sqlglot
>>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Except: the Except expression

class UDTF(DerivedTable, Unionable):
794class UDTF(DerivedTable, Unionable):
795    pass
class Cache(Expression):
798class Cache(Expression):
799    arg_types = {
800        "with": False,
801        "this": True,
802        "lazy": False,
803        "options": False,
804        "expression": False,
805    }
class Uncache(Expression):
808class Uncache(Expression):
809    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False}
class Create(Expression):
812class Create(Expression):
813    arg_types = {
814        "with": False,
815        "this": True,
816        "kind": True,
817        "expression": False,
818        "exists": False,
819        "properties": False,
820        "replace": False,
821        "unique": False,
822        "indexes": False,
823        "no_schema_binding": False,
824        "begin": False,
825    }
class Describe(Expression):
828class Describe(Expression):
829    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
class Pragma(Expression):
832class Pragma(Expression):
833    pass
class Set(Expression):
836class Set(Expression):
837    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
class SetItem(Expression):
840class SetItem(Expression):
841    arg_types = {
842        "this": False,
843        "expressions": False,
844        "kind": False,
845        "collate": False,  # MySQL SET NAMES statement
846        "global": False,
847    }
class Show(Expression):
850class Show(Expression):
851    arg_types = {
852        "this": True,
853        "target": False,
854        "offset": False,
855        "limit": False,
856        "like": False,
857        "where": False,
858        "db": False,
859        "full": False,
860        "mutex": False,
861        "query": False,
862        "channel": False,
863        "global": False,
864        "log": False,
865        "position": False,
866        "types": False,
867    }
class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
870class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
871    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
class CharacterSet(Expression):
874class CharacterSet(Expression):
875    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
class With(Expression):
878class With(Expression):
879    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "recursive": False}
880
881    @property
882    def recursive(self) -> bool:
883        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
class WithinGroup(Expression):
886class WithinGroup(Expression):
887    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
class CTE(DerivedTable):
890class CTE(DerivedTable):
891    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": True}
class TableAlias(Expression):
894class TableAlias(Expression):
895    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
896
897    @property
898    def columns(self):
899        return self.args.get("columns") or []
class BitString(Condition):
902class BitString(Condition):
903    pass
class HexString(Condition):
906class HexString(Condition):
907    pass
class ByteString(Condition):
910class ByteString(Condition):
911    pass
class Column(Condition):
914class Column(Condition):
915    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False, "db": False, "catalog": False, "join_mark": False}
916
917    @property
918    def table(self) -> str:
919        return self.text("table")
920
921    @property
922    def db(self) -> str:
923        return self.text("db")
924
925    @property
926    def catalog(self) -> str:
927        return self.text("catalog")
928
929    @property
930    def output_name(self) -> str:
931        return self.name
932
933    @property
934    def parts(self) -> t.List[Identifier]:
935        """Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name."""
936        return [part for part in reversed(list(self.args.values())) if part]
937
938    def to_dot(self) -> Dot:
939        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
940        parts = self.parts
941        parent = self.parent
942
943        while parent:
944            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
945                parts.append(parent.expression)
946            parent = parent.parent
947
948        return Dot.build(parts)
output_name: str

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''

Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name.

def to_dot(self) -> sqlglot.expressions.Dot:
938    def to_dot(self) -> Dot:
939        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
940        parts = self.parts
941        parent = self.parent
942
943        while parent:
944            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
945                parts.append(parent.expression)
946            parent = parent.parent
947
948        return Dot.build(parts)

Converts the column into a dot expression.

class ColumnPosition(Expression):
951class ColumnPosition(Expression):
952    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
class ColumnDef(Expression):
955class ColumnDef(Expression):
956    arg_types = {
957        "this": True,
958        "kind": False,
959        "constraints": False,
960        "exists": False,
961        "position": False,
962    }
class AlterColumn(Expression):
965class AlterColumn(Expression):
966    arg_types = {
967        "this": True,
968        "dtype": False,
969        "collate": False,
970        "using": False,
971        "default": False,
972        "drop": False,
973    }
class RenameTable(Expression):
976class RenameTable(Expression):
977    pass
class SetTag(Expression):
980class SetTag(Expression):
981    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "unset": False}
class Comment(Expression):
984class Comment(Expression):
985    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True, "exists": False}
class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
988class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
989    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": True}
class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
992class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
993    pass
class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
996class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
997    pass
class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1000class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1001    arg_types = {"not_": True}
class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1004class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1005    arg_types = {"this": True}
class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1008class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1009    pass
class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1012class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1013    pass
class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1016class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1017    pass
class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1020class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1021    pass
class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1024class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1025    arg_types = {"this": True}
class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1028class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1029    pass
class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1032class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1033    pass
class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1036class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1037    # this: True -> ALWAYS, this: False -> BY DEFAULT
1038    arg_types = {
1039        "this": False,
1040        "start": False,
1041        "increment": False,
1042        "minvalue": False,
1043        "maxvalue": False,
1044        "cycle": False,
1045    }
class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1048class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1049    pass
class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1052class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1053    arg_types = {"allow_null": False}
class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1057class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1058    pass
class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1061class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1062    arg_types = {"desc": False}
class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1065class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1066    pass
class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1069class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1070    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1073class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1074    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1077class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1078    pass
class Constraint(Expression):
1081class Constraint(Expression):
1082    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
class Delete(Expression):
1085class Delete(Expression):
1086    arg_types = {"with": False, "this": False, "using": False, "where": False, "returning": False}
1087
1088    def delete(
1089        self,
1090        table: ExpOrStr,
1091        dialect: DialectType = None,
1092        copy: bool = True,
1093        **opts,
1094    ) -> Delete:
1095        """
1096        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1097
1098        Example:
1099            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1100            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1101
1102        Args:
1103            table: the table from which to delete.
1104            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1105            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1106            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1107
1108        Returns:
1109            Delete: the modified expression.
1110        """
1111        return _apply_builder(
1112            expression=table,
1113            instance=self,
1114            arg="this",
1115            dialect=dialect,
1116            into=Table,
1117            copy=copy,
1118            **opts,
1119        )
1120
1121    def where(
1122        self,
1123        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
1124        append: bool = True,
1125        dialect: DialectType = None,
1126        copy: bool = True,
1127        **opts,
1128    ) -> Delete:
1129        """
1130        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1131
1132        Example:
1133            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1134            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1135
1136        Args:
1137            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1138                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1139                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1140            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1141                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1142            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1143            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1144            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1145
1146        Returns:
1147            Delete: the modified expression.
1148        """
1149        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1150            *expressions,
1151            instance=self,
1152            arg="where",
1153            append=append,
1154            into=Where,
1155            dialect=dialect,
1156            copy=copy,
1157            **opts,
1158        )
1159
1160    def returning(
1161        self,
1162        expression: ExpOrStr,
1163        dialect: DialectType = None,
1164        copy: bool = True,
1165        **opts,
1166    ) -> Delete:
1167        """
1168        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1169
1170        Example:
1171            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1172            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1173
1174        Args:
1175            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1176                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1177            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1178            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1179            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1180
1181        Returns:
1182            Delete: the modified expression.
1183        """
1184        return _apply_builder(
1185            expression=expression,
1186            instance=self,
1187            arg="returning",
1188            prefix="RETURNING",
1189            dialect=dialect,
1190            copy=copy,
1191            into=Returning,
1192            **opts,
1193        )
def delete( self, table: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Delete:
1088    def delete(
1089        self,
1090        table: ExpOrStr,
1091        dialect: DialectType = None,
1092        copy: bool = True,
1093        **opts,
1094    ) -> Delete:
1095        """
1096        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1097
1098        Example:
1099            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1100            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1101
1102        Args:
1103            table: the table from which to delete.
1104            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1105            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1106            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1107
1108        Returns:
1109            Delete: the modified expression.
1110        """
1111        return _apply_builder(
1112            expression=table,
1113            instance=self,
1114            arg="this",
1115            dialect=dialect,
1116            into=Table,
1117            copy=copy,
1118            **opts,
1119        )

Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.

Example:
>>> delete("tbl").sql()
'DELETE FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • table: the table from which to delete.
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy: if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Delete: the modified expression.

def where( self, *expressions: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], append: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Delete:
1121    def where(
1122        self,
1123        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
1124        append: bool = True,
1125        dialect: DialectType = None,
1126        copy: bool = True,
1127        **opts,
1128    ) -> Delete:
1129        """
1130        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1131
1132        Example:
1133            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1134            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1135
1136        Args:
1137            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1138                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1139                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1140            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1141                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1142            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1143            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1144            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1145
1146        Returns:
1147            Delete: the modified expression.
1148        """
1149        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1150            *expressions,
1151            instance=self,
1152            arg="where",
1153            append=append,
1154            into=Where,
1155            dialect=dialect,
1156            copy=copy,
1157            **opts,
1158        )

Append to or set the WHERE expressions.

Example:
>>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
"DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
Arguments:
  • *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is. Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
  • append: if True, AND the new expressions to any existing expression. Otherwise, this resets the expression.
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy: if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Delete: the modified expression.

def returning( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Delete:
1160    def returning(
1161        self,
1162        expression: ExpOrStr,
1163        dialect: DialectType = None,
1164        copy: bool = True,
1165        **opts,
1166    ) -> Delete:
1167        """
1168        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1169
1170        Example:
1171            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1172            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1173
1174        Args:
1175            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1176                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1177            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1178            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1179            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1180
1181        Returns:
1182            Delete: the modified expression.
1183        """
1184        return _apply_builder(
1185            expression=expression,
1186            instance=self,
1187            arg="returning",
1188            prefix="RETURNING",
1189            dialect=dialect,
1190            copy=copy,
1191            into=Returning,
1192            **opts,
1193        )

Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.

Example:
>>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
Arguments:
  • expression: the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy: if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Delete: the modified expression.

class Drop(Expression):
1196class Drop(Expression):
1197    arg_types = {
1198        "this": False,
1199        "kind": False,
1200        "exists": False,
1201        "temporary": False,
1202        "materialized": False,
1203        "cascade": False,
1204        "constraints": False,
1205        "purge": False,
1206    }
class Filter(Expression):
1209class Filter(Expression):
1210    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class Check(Expression):
1213class Check(Expression):
1214    pass
class Directory(Expression):
1217class Directory(Expression):
1218    # https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.0.0-preview/sql-ref-syntax-dml-insert-overwrite-directory-hive.html
1219    arg_types = {"this": True, "local": False, "row_format": False}
class ForeignKey(Expression):
1222class ForeignKey(Expression):
1223    arg_types = {
1224        "expressions": True,
1225        "reference": False,
1226        "delete": False,
1227        "update": False,
1228    }
class PrimaryKey(Expression):
1231class PrimaryKey(Expression):
1232    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "options": False}
class Unique(Expression):
1235class Unique(Expression):
1236    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
class Into(Expression):
1241class Into(Expression):
1242    arg_types = {"this": True, "temporary": False, "unlogged": False}
class From(Expression):
1245class From(Expression):
1246    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
class Having(Expression):
1249class Having(Expression):
1250    pass
class Hint(Expression):
1253class Hint(Expression):
1254    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
class JoinHint(Expression):
1257class JoinHint(Expression):
1258    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
class Identifier(Expression):
1261class Identifier(Expression):
1262    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False}
1263
1264    @property
1265    def quoted(self):
1266        return bool(self.args.get("quoted"))
1267
1268    @property
1269    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1270        if self.quoted and any(char.isupper() for char in self.this):
1271            return (self.this, self.quoted)
1272        return self.this.lower()
1273
1274    @property
1275    def output_name(self):
1276        return self.name
output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
class Index(Expression):
1279class Index(Expression):
1280    arg_types = {
1281        "this": False,
1282        "table": False,
1283        "where": False,
1284        "columns": False,
1285        "unique": False,
1286        "primary": False,
1287        "amp": False,  # teradata
1288    }
class Insert(Expression):
1291class Insert(Expression):
1292    arg_types = {
1293        "with": False,
1294        "this": True,
1295        "expression": False,
1296        "returning": False,
1297        "overwrite": False,
1298        "exists": False,
1299        "partition": False,
1300        "alternative": False,
1301    }
class Returning(Expression):
1304class Returning(Expression):
1305    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
class Introducer(Expression):
1309class Introducer(Expression):
1310    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class National(Expression):
1314class National(Expression):
1315    pass
class LoadData(Expression):
1318class LoadData(Expression):
1319    arg_types = {
1320        "this": True,
1321        "local": False,
1322        "overwrite": False,
1323        "inpath": True,
1324        "partition": False,
1325        "input_format": False,
1326        "serde": False,
1327    }
class Partition(Expression):
1330class Partition(Expression):
1331    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
class Fetch(Expression):
1334class Fetch(Expression):
1335    arg_types = {
1336        "direction": False,
1337        "count": False,
1338        "percent": False,
1339        "with_ties": False,
1340    }
class Group(Expression):
1343class Group(Expression):
1344    arg_types = {
1345        "expressions": False,
1346        "grouping_sets": False,
1347        "cube": False,
1348        "rollup": False,
1349    }
class Lambda(Expression):
1352class Lambda(Expression):
1353    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
class Limit(Expression):
1356class Limit(Expression):
1357    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
class Literal(Condition):
1360class Literal(Condition):
1361    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_string": True}
1362
1363    @property
1364    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1365        return (self.this, self.args.get("is_string"))
1366
1367    @classmethod
1368    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
1369        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
1370
1371    @classmethod
1372    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
1373        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
1374
1375    @property
1376    def output_name(self):
1377        return self.name
@classmethod
def number(cls, number) -> sqlglot.expressions.Literal:
1367    @classmethod
1368    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
1369        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
@classmethod
def string(cls, string) -> sqlglot.expressions.Literal:
1371    @classmethod
1372    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
1373        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
class Join(Expression):
1380class Join(Expression):
1381    arg_types = {
1382        "this": True,
1383        "on": False,
1384        "side": False,
1385        "kind": False,
1386        "using": False,
1387        "natural": False,
1388        "hint": False,
1389    }
1390
1391    @property
1392    def kind(self):
1393        return self.text("kind").upper()
1394
1395    @property
1396    def side(self):
1397        return self.text("side").upper()
1398
1399    @property
1400    def hint(self):
1401        return self.text("hint").upper()
1402
1403    @property
1404    def alias_or_name(self):
1405        return self.this.alias_or_name
1406
1407    def on(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1408        """
1409        Append to or set the ON expressions.
1410
1411        Example:
1412            >>> import sqlglot
1413            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
1414            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
1415
1416        Args:
1417            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
1418                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1419                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1420            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1421                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1422            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1423            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1424            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1425
1426        Returns:
1427            Join: the modified join expression.
1428        """
1429        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
1430            *expressions,
1431            instance=self,
1432            arg="on",
1433            append=append,
1434            dialect=dialect,
1435            copy=copy,
1436            **opts,
1437        )
1438
1439        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1440            join.set("kind", None)
1441
1442        return join
1443
1444    def using(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1445        """
1446        Append to or set the USING expressions.
1447
1448        Example:
1449            >>> import sqlglot
1450            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
1451            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
1452
1453        Args:
1454            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
1455                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1456            append (bool): if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
1457                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1458            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1459            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1460            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1461
1462        Returns:
1463            Join: the modified join expression.
1464        """
1465        join = _apply_list_builder(
1466            *expressions,
1467            instance=self,
1468            arg="using",
1469            append=append,
1470            dialect=dialect,
1471            copy=copy,
1472            **opts,
1473        )
1474
1475        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1476            join.set("kind", None)
1477
1478        return join
def on(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1407    def on(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1408        """
1409        Append to or set the ON expressions.
1410
1411        Example:
1412            >>> import sqlglot
1413            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
1414            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
1415
1416        Args:
1417            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
1418                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1419                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1420            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1421                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1422            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1423            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1424            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1425
1426        Returns:
1427            Join: the modified join expression.
1428        """
1429        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
1430            *expressions,
1431            instance=self,
1432            arg="on",
1433            append=append,
1434            dialect=dialect,
1435            copy=copy,
1436            **opts,
1437        )
1438
1439        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1440            join.set("kind", None)
1441
1442        return join

Append to or set the ON expressions.

Example:
>>> import sqlglot
>>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
'JOIN x ON y = 1'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is. Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
  • append (bool): if True, AND the new expressions to any existing expression. Otherwise, this resets the expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Join: the modified join expression.

def using(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1444    def using(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1445        """
1446        Append to or set the USING expressions.
1447
1448        Example:
1449            >>> import sqlglot
1450            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
1451            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
1452
1453        Args:
1454            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
1455                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1456            append (bool): if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
1457                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1458            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1459            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1460            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1461
1462        Returns:
1463            Join: the modified join expression.
1464        """
1465        join = _apply_list_builder(
1466            *expressions,
1467            instance=self,
1468            arg="using",
1469            append=append,
1470            dialect=dialect,
1471            copy=copy,
1472            **opts,
1473        )
1474
1475        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1476            join.set("kind", None)
1477
1478        return join

Append to or set the USING expressions.

Example:
>>> import sqlglot
>>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • append (bool): if True, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list. Otherwise, this resets the expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Join: the modified join expression.

class Lateral(UDTF):
1481class Lateral(UDTF):
1482    arg_types = {"this": True, "view": False, "outer": False, "alias": False}
class MatchRecognize(Expression):
1485class MatchRecognize(Expression):
1486    arg_types = {
1487        "partition_by": False,
1488        "order": False,
1489        "measures": False,
1490        "rows": False,
1491        "after": False,
1492        "pattern": False,
1493        "define": False,
1494        "alias": False,
1495    }
class Final(Expression):
1500class Final(Expression):
1501    pass
class Offset(Expression):
1504class Offset(Expression):
1505    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
class Order(Expression):
1508class Order(Expression):
1509    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": True}
class Cluster(Order):
1514class Cluster(Order):
1515    pass
class Distribute(Order):
1518class Distribute(Order):
1519    pass
class Sort(Order):
1522class Sort(Order):
1523    pass
class Ordered(Expression):
1526class Ordered(Expression):
1527    arg_types = {"this": True, "desc": True, "nulls_first": True}
class Property(Expression):
1530class Property(Expression):
1531    arg_types = {"this": True, "value": True}
class AfterJournalProperty(Property):
1534class AfterJournalProperty(Property):
1535    arg_types = {"no": True, "dual": False, "local": False}
class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
1538class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
1539    arg_types = {"this": True}
class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
1542class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
1543    arg_types = {"this": True}
class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
1546class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
1547    arg_types = {"autotemp": False, "always": False, "default": True, "manual": True, "never": True}
class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
1550class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
1551    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": True}
class ChecksumProperty(Property):
1554class ChecksumProperty(Property):
1555    arg_types = {"on": False, "default": False}
class CollateProperty(Property):
1558class CollateProperty(Property):
1559    arg_types = {"this": True}
class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
1562class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
1563    arg_types = {"size": False, "units": False, "min": False, "default": False}
class DefinerProperty(Property):
1566class DefinerProperty(Property):
1567    arg_types = {"this": True}
class DistKeyProperty(Property):
1570class DistKeyProperty(Property):
1571    arg_types = {"this": True}
class DistStyleProperty(Property):
1574class DistStyleProperty(Property):
1575    arg_types = {"this": True}
class EngineProperty(Property):
1578class EngineProperty(Property):
1579    arg_types = {"this": True}
class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
1582class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
1583    arg_types = {"this": True}
class ExternalProperty(Property):
1586class ExternalProperty(Property):
1587    arg_types = {"this": False}
class FallbackProperty(Property):
1590class FallbackProperty(Property):
1591    arg_types = {"no": True, "protection": False}
class FileFormatProperty(Property):
1594class FileFormatProperty(Property):
1595    arg_types = {"this": True}
class FreespaceProperty(Property):
1598class FreespaceProperty(Property):
1599    arg_types = {"this": True, "percent": False}
class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
1602class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
1603    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
1606class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
1607    arg_types = {
1608        "no": True,
1609        "concurrent": True,
1610        "for_all": True,
1611        "for_insert": True,
1612        "for_none": True,
1613    }
class JournalProperty(Property):
1616class JournalProperty(Property):
1617    arg_types = {"no": True, "dual": False, "before": False}
class LanguageProperty(Property):
1620class LanguageProperty(Property):
1621    arg_types = {"this": True}
class LikeProperty(Property):
1624class LikeProperty(Property):
1625    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
class LocationProperty(Property):
1628class LocationProperty(Property):
1629    arg_types = {"this": True}
class LockingProperty(Property):
1632class LockingProperty(Property):
1633    arg_types = {
1634        "this": False,
1635        "kind": True,
1636        "for_or_in": True,
1637        "lock_type": True,
1638        "override": False,
1639    }
class LogProperty(Property):
1642class LogProperty(Property):
1643    arg_types = {"no": True}
class MaterializedProperty(Property):
1646class MaterializedProperty(Property):
1647    arg_types = {"this": False}
class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
1650class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
1651    arg_types = {"this": False, "no": False, "default": False, "percent": False}
class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
1654class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
1655    arg_types = {"this": False}
class OnCommitProperty(Property):
1658class OnCommitProperty(Property):
1659    arg_type = {"this": False}
class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
1662class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
1663    arg_types = {"this": True}
class ReturnsProperty(Property):
1666class ReturnsProperty(Property):
1667    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_table": False, "table": False}
class RowFormatProperty(Property):
1670class RowFormatProperty(Property):
1671    arg_types = {"this": True}
class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
1674class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
1675    # https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/hive/languagemanual+dml
1676    arg_types = {
1677        "fields": False,
1678        "escaped": False,
1679        "collection_items": False,
1680        "map_keys": False,
1681        "lines": False,
1682        "null": False,
1683        "serde": False,
1684    }
class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
1687class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
1688    arg_types = {"this": True}
class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
1691class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
1692    arg_types = {"this": True}
class SerdeProperties(Property):
1695class SerdeProperties(Property):
1696    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
class SetProperty(Property):
1699class SetProperty(Property):
1700    arg_types = {"multi": True}
class SortKeyProperty(Property):
1703class SortKeyProperty(Property):
1704    arg_types = {"this": True, "compound": False}
class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
1707class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
1708    arg_types = {"definer": True}
class StabilityProperty(Property):
1711class StabilityProperty(Property):
1712    arg_types = {"this": True}
class TableFormatProperty(Property):
1715class TableFormatProperty(Property):
1716    arg_types = {"this": True}
class TemporaryProperty(Property):
1719class TemporaryProperty(Property):
1720    arg_types = {"global_": True}
class TransientProperty(Property):
1723class TransientProperty(Property):
1724    arg_types = {"this": False}
class VolatileProperty(Property):
1727class VolatileProperty(Property):
1728    arg_types = {"this": False}
class WithDataProperty(Property):
1731class WithDataProperty(Property):
1732    arg_types = {"no": True, "statistics": False}
class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
1735class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
1736    arg_types = {"this": True}
class Properties(Expression):
1739class Properties(Expression):
1740    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1741
1742    NAME_TO_PROPERTY = {
1743        "ALGORITHM": AlgorithmProperty,
1744        "AUTO_INCREMENT": AutoIncrementProperty,
1745        "CHARACTER SET": CharacterSetProperty,
1746        "COLLATE": CollateProperty,
1747        "COMMENT": SchemaCommentProperty,
1748        "DEFINER": DefinerProperty,
1749        "DISTKEY": DistKeyProperty,
1750        "DISTSTYLE": DistStyleProperty,
1751        "ENGINE": EngineProperty,
1752        "EXECUTE AS": ExecuteAsProperty,
1753        "FORMAT": FileFormatProperty,
1754        "LANGUAGE": LanguageProperty,
1755        "LOCATION": LocationProperty,
1756        "PARTITIONED_BY": PartitionedByProperty,
1757        "RETURNS": ReturnsProperty,
1758        "ROW_FORMAT": RowFormatProperty,
1759        "SORTKEY": SortKeyProperty,
1760        "TABLE_FORMAT": TableFormatProperty,
1761    }
1762
1763    PROPERTY_TO_NAME = {v: k for k, v in NAME_TO_PROPERTY.items()}
1764
1765    # CREATE property locations
1766    # Form: schema specified
1767    #   create [POST_CREATE]
1768    #     table a [POST_NAME]
1769    #     (b int) [POST_SCHEMA]
1770    #     with ([POST_WITH])
1771    #     index (b) [POST_INDEX]
1772    #
1773    # Form: alias selection
1774    #   create [POST_CREATE]
1775    #     table a [POST_NAME]
1776    #     as [POST_ALIAS] (select * from b) [POST_EXPRESSION]
1777    #     index (c) [POST_INDEX]
1778    class Location(AutoName):
1779        POST_CREATE = auto()
1780        POST_NAME = auto()
1781        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
1782        POST_WITH = auto()
1783        POST_ALIAS = auto()
1784        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
1785        POST_INDEX = auto()
1786        UNSUPPORTED = auto()
1787
1788    @classmethod
1789    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict) -> Properties:
1790        expressions = []
1791        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
1792            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
1793            if property_cls:
1794                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
1795            else:
1796                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
1797
1798        return cls(expressions=expressions)
@classmethod
def from_dict(cls, properties_dict) -> sqlglot.expressions.Properties:
1788    @classmethod
1789    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict) -> Properties:
1790        expressions = []
1791        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
1792            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
1793            if property_cls:
1794                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
1795            else:
1796                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
1797
1798        return cls(expressions=expressions)
class Properties.Location(sqlglot.helper.AutoName):
1778    class Location(AutoName):
1779        POST_CREATE = auto()
1780        POST_NAME = auto()
1781        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
1782        POST_WITH = auto()
1783        POST_ALIAS = auto()
1784        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
1785        POST_INDEX = auto()
1786        UNSUPPORTED = auto()

An enumeration.

POST_CREATE = <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>
POST_NAME = <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>
POST_SCHEMA = <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>
POST_WITH = <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>
POST_ALIAS = <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>
POST_EXPRESSION = <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>
POST_INDEX = <Location.POST_INDEX: 'POST_INDEX'>
UNSUPPORTED = <Location.UNSUPPORTED: 'UNSUPPORTED'>
Inherited Members
enum.Enum
name
value
class Qualify(Expression):
1801class Qualify(Expression):
1802    pass
class Return(Expression):
1806class Return(Expression):
1807    pass
class Reference(Expression):
1810class Reference(Expression):
1811    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "options": False}
class Tuple(Expression):
1814class Tuple(Expression):
1815    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
class Subqueryable(Unionable):
1818class Subqueryable(Unionable):
1819    def subquery(self, alias=None, copy=True) -> Subquery:
1820        """
1821        Convert this expression to an aliased expression that can be used as a Subquery.
1822
1823        Example:
1824            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
1825            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
1826            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
1827
1828        Args:
1829            alias (str | Identifier): an optional alias for the subquery
1830            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1831
1832        Returns:
1833            Alias: the subquery
1834        """
1835        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
1836        return Subquery(
1837            this=instance,
1838            alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
1839        )
1840
1841    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
1842        raise NotImplementedError
1843
1844    @property
1845    def ctes(self):
1846        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1847        if not with_:
1848            return []
1849        return with_.expressions
1850
1851    @property
1852    def selects(self):
1853        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `selects`")
1854
1855    @property
1856    def named_selects(self):
1857        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `named_selects`")
1858
1859    def with_(
1860        self,
1861        alias,
1862        as_,
1863        recursive=None,
1864        append=True,
1865        dialect=None,
1866        copy=True,
1867        **opts,
1868    ):
1869        """
1870        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1871
1872        Example:
1873            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
1874            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
1875
1876        Args:
1877            alias (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1878                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1879            as_ (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1880                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1881            recursive (bool): set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1882            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1883                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1884            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1885            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1886            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1887
1888        Returns:
1889            Select: the modified expression.
1890        """
1891        alias_expression = maybe_parse(
1892            alias,
1893            dialect=dialect,
1894            into=TableAlias,
1895            **opts,
1896        )
1897        as_expression = maybe_parse(
1898            as_,
1899            dialect=dialect,
1900            **opts,
1901        )
1902        cte = CTE(
1903            this=as_expression,
1904            alias=alias_expression,
1905        )
1906        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1907            cte,
1908            instance=self,
1909            arg="with",
1910            append=append,
1911            copy=copy,
1912            into=With,
1913            properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
1914        )
def subquery(self, alias=None, copy=True) -> sqlglot.expressions.Subquery:
1819    def subquery(self, alias=None, copy=True) -> Subquery:
1820        """
1821        Convert this expression to an aliased expression that can be used as a Subquery.
1822
1823        Example:
1824            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
1825            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
1826            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
1827
1828        Args:
1829            alias (str | Identifier): an optional alias for the subquery
1830            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1831
1832        Returns:
1833            Alias: the subquery
1834        """
1835        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
1836        return Subquery(
1837            this=instance,
1838            alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
1839        )

Convert this expression to an aliased expression that can be used as a Subquery.

Example:
>>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
>>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
Arguments:
  • alias (str | Identifier): an optional alias for the subquery
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
Returns:

Alias: the subquery

def limit( self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
1841    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
1842        raise NotImplementedError
def with_( self, alias, as_, recursive=None, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts):
1859    def with_(
1860        self,
1861        alias,
1862        as_,
1863        recursive=None,
1864        append=True,
1865        dialect=None,
1866        copy=True,
1867        **opts,
1868    ):
1869        """
1870        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1871
1872        Example:
1873            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
1874            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
1875
1876        Args:
1877            alias (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1878                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1879            as_ (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1880                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1881            recursive (bool): set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1882            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1883                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1884            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1885            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1886            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1887
1888        Returns:
1889            Select: the modified expression.
1890        """
1891        alias_expression = maybe_parse(
1892            alias,
1893            dialect=dialect,
1894            into=TableAlias,
1895            **opts,
1896        )
1897        as_expression = maybe_parse(
1898            as_,
1899            dialect=dialect,
1900            **opts,
1901        )
1902        cte = CTE(
1903            this=as_expression,
1904            alias=alias_expression,
1905        )
1906        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1907            cte,
1908            instance=self,
1909            arg="with",
1910            append=append,
1911            copy=copy,
1912            into=With,
1913            properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
1914        )

Append to or set the common table expressions.

Example:
>>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
Arguments:
  • alias (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • as_ (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table expression. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • recursive (bool): set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to False.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

class Table(Expression):
1938class Table(Expression):
1939    arg_types = {
1940        "this": True,
1941        "alias": False,
1942        "db": False,
1943        "catalog": False,
1944        "laterals": False,
1945        "joins": False,
1946        "pivots": False,
1947        "hints": False,
1948        "system_time": False,
1949    }
1950
1951    @property
1952    def db(self) -> str:
1953        return self.text("db")
1954
1955    @property
1956    def catalog(self) -> str:
1957        return self.text("catalog")
class SystemTime(Expression):
1961class SystemTime(Expression):
1962    arg_types = {
1963        "this": False,
1964        "expression": False,
1965        "kind": True,
1966    }
class Union(Subqueryable):
1969class Union(Subqueryable):
1970    arg_types = {
1971        "with": False,
1972        "this": True,
1973        "expression": True,
1974        "distinct": False,
1975        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
1976    }
1977
1978    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
1979        """
1980        Set the LIMIT expression.
1981
1982        Example:
1983            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
1984            'SELECT * FROM (SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1) AS _l_0 LIMIT 1'
1985
1986        Args:
1987            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
1988                This can also be an integer.
1989                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1990                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
1991            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1992            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1993            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1994
1995        Returns:
1996            Select: The limited subqueryable.
1997        """
1998        return (
1999            select("*")
2000            .from_(self.subquery(alias="_l_0", copy=copy))
2001            .limit(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2002        )
2003
2004    def select(
2005        self,
2006        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2007        append: bool = True,
2008        dialect: DialectType = None,
2009        copy: bool = True,
2010        **opts,
2011    ) -> Union:
2012        """Append to or set the SELECT of the union recursively.
2013
2014        Example:
2015            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
2016            >>> parse_one("select a from x union select a from y union select a from z").select("b").sql()
2017            'SELECT a, b FROM x UNION SELECT a, b FROM y UNION SELECT a, b FROM z'
2018
2019        Args:
2020            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2021                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2022            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2023                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2024            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2025            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2026            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2027
2028        Returns:
2029            Union: the modified expression.
2030        """
2031        this = self.copy() if copy else self
2032        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2033        this.expression.unnest().select(
2034            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
2035        )
2036        return this
2037
2038    @property
2039    def named_selects(self):
2040        return self.this.unnest().named_selects
2041
2042    @property
2043    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2044        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
2045
2046    @property
2047    def selects(self):
2048        return self.this.unnest().selects
2049
2050    @property
2051    def left(self):
2052        return self.this
2053
2054    @property
2055    def right(self):
2056        return self.expression
def limit( self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
1978    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
1979        """
1980        Set the LIMIT expression.
1981
1982        Example:
1983            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
1984            'SELECT * FROM (SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1) AS _l_0 LIMIT 1'
1985
1986        Args:
1987            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
1988                This can also be an integer.
1989                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1990                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
1991            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1992            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1993            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1994
1995        Returns:
1996            Select: The limited subqueryable.
1997        """
1998        return (
1999            select("*")
2000            .from_(self.subquery(alias="_l_0", copy=copy))
2001            .limit(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2002        )

Set the LIMIT expression.

Example:
>>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
'SELECT * FROM (SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1) AS _l_0 LIMIT 1'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse. This can also be an integer. If a Limit instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a Limit.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: The limited subqueryable.

def select( self, *expressions: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], append: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Union:
2004    def select(
2005        self,
2006        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2007        append: bool = True,
2008        dialect: DialectType = None,
2009        copy: bool = True,
2010        **opts,
2011    ) -> Union:
2012        """Append to or set the SELECT of the union recursively.
2013
2014        Example:
2015            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
2016            >>> parse_one("select a from x union select a from y union select a from z").select("b").sql()
2017            'SELECT a, b FROM x UNION SELECT a, b FROM y UNION SELECT a, b FROM z'
2018
2019        Args:
2020            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2021                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2022            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2023                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2024            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2025            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2026            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2027
2028        Returns:
2029            Union: the modified expression.
2030        """
2031        this = self.copy() if copy else self
2032        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2033        this.expression.unnest().select(
2034            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
2035        )
2036        return this

Append to or set the SELECT of the union recursively.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("select a from x union select a from y union select a from z").select("b").sql()
'SELECT a, b FROM x UNION SELECT a, b FROM y UNION SELECT a, b FROM z'
Arguments:
  • *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • append: if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy: if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Union: the modified expression.

is_star: bool

Checks whether an expression is a star.

class Except(Union):
2059class Except(Union):
2060    pass
class Intersect(Union):
2063class Intersect(Union):
2064    pass
class Unnest(UDTF):
2067class Unnest(UDTF):
2068    arg_types = {
2069        "expressions": True,
2070        "ordinality": False,
2071        "alias": False,
2072        "offset": False,
2073    }
class Update(Expression):
2076class Update(Expression):
2077    arg_types = {
2078        "with": False,
2079        "this": False,
2080        "expressions": True,
2081        "from": False,
2082        "where": False,
2083        "returning": False,
2084    }
class Values(UDTF):
2087class Values(UDTF):
2088    arg_types = {
2089        "expressions": True,
2090        "ordinality": False,
2091        "alias": False,
2092    }
class Var(Expression):
2095class Var(Expression):
2096    pass
class Schema(Expression):
2099class Schema(Expression):
2100    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
class Lock(Expression):
2105class Lock(Expression):
2106    arg_types = {"update": True}
class Select(Subqueryable):
2109class Select(Subqueryable):
2110    arg_types = {
2111        "with": False,
2112        "kind": False,
2113        "expressions": False,
2114        "hint": False,
2115        "distinct": False,
2116        "into": False,
2117        "from": False,
2118        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2119    }
2120
2121    def from_(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2122        """
2123        Set the FROM expression.
2124
2125        Example:
2126            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
2127            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
2128
2129        Args:
2130            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2131                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2132                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
2133            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2134                Otherwise, this flattens all the `From` expression into a single expression.
2135            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2136            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2137            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2138
2139        Returns:
2140            Select: the modified expression.
2141        """
2142        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2143            *expressions,
2144            instance=self,
2145            arg="from",
2146            append=append,
2147            copy=copy,
2148            prefix="FROM",
2149            into=From,
2150            dialect=dialect,
2151            **opts,
2152        )
2153
2154    def group_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2155        """
2156        Set the GROUP BY expression.
2157
2158        Example:
2159            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
2160            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
2161
2162        Args:
2163            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2164                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2165                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
2166                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
2167            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2168                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
2169            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2170            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2171            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2172
2173        Returns:
2174            Select: the modified expression.
2175        """
2176        if not expressions:
2177            return self if not copy else self.copy()
2178        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2179            *expressions,
2180            instance=self,
2181            arg="group",
2182            append=append,
2183            copy=copy,
2184            prefix="GROUP BY",
2185            into=Group,
2186            dialect=dialect,
2187            **opts,
2188        )
2189
2190    def order_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2191        """
2192        Set the ORDER BY expression.
2193
2194        Example:
2195            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
2196            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
2197
2198        Args:
2199            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2200                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2201                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
2202            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2203                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2204            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2205            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2206            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2207
2208        Returns:
2209            Select: the modified expression.
2210        """
2211        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2212            *expressions,
2213            instance=self,
2214            arg="order",
2215            append=append,
2216            copy=copy,
2217            prefix="ORDER BY",
2218            into=Order,
2219            dialect=dialect,
2220            **opts,
2221        )
2222
2223    def sort_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2224        """
2225        Set the SORT BY expression.
2226
2227        Example:
2228            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql()
2229            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
2230
2231        Args:
2232            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2233                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2234                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
2235            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2236                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2237            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2238            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2239            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2240
2241        Returns:
2242            Select: the modified expression.
2243        """
2244        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2245            *expressions,
2246            instance=self,
2247            arg="sort",
2248            append=append,
2249            copy=copy,
2250            prefix="SORT BY",
2251            into=Sort,
2252            dialect=dialect,
2253            **opts,
2254        )
2255
2256    def cluster_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2257        """
2258        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
2259
2260        Example:
2261            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql()
2262            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
2263
2264        Args:
2265            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2266                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2267                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
2268            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2269                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2270            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2271            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2272            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2273
2274        Returns:
2275            Select: the modified expression.
2276        """
2277        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2278            *expressions,
2279            instance=self,
2280            arg="cluster",
2281            append=append,
2282            copy=copy,
2283            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
2284            into=Cluster,
2285            dialect=dialect,
2286            **opts,
2287        )
2288
2289    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2290        """
2291        Set the LIMIT expression.
2292
2293        Example:
2294            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").limit(10).sql()
2295            'SELECT x FROM tbl LIMIT 10'
2296
2297        Args:
2298            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2299                This can also be an integer.
2300                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2301                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
2302            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2303            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2304            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2305
2306        Returns:
2307            Select: the modified expression.
2308        """
2309        return _apply_builder(
2310            expression=expression,
2311            instance=self,
2312            arg="limit",
2313            into=Limit,
2314            prefix="LIMIT",
2315            dialect=dialect,
2316            copy=copy,
2317            **opts,
2318        )
2319
2320    def offset(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2321        """
2322        Set the OFFSET expression.
2323
2324        Example:
2325            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
2326            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
2327
2328        Args:
2329            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2330                This can also be an integer.
2331                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2332                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
2333            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2334            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2335            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2336
2337        Returns:
2338            Select: the modified expression.
2339        """
2340        return _apply_builder(
2341            expression=expression,
2342            instance=self,
2343            arg="offset",
2344            into=Offset,
2345            prefix="OFFSET",
2346            dialect=dialect,
2347            copy=copy,
2348            **opts,
2349        )
2350
2351    def select(
2352        self,
2353        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2354        append: bool = True,
2355        dialect: DialectType = None,
2356        copy: bool = True,
2357        **opts,
2358    ) -> Select:
2359        """
2360        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
2361
2362        Example:
2363            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
2364            'SELECT x, y'
2365
2366        Args:
2367            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2368                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2369            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2370                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2371            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2372            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2373            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2374
2375        Returns:
2376            Select: the modified expression.
2377        """
2378        return _apply_list_builder(
2379            *expressions,
2380            instance=self,
2381            arg="expressions",
2382            append=append,
2383            dialect=dialect,
2384            copy=copy,
2385            **opts,
2386        )
2387
2388    def lateral(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2389        """
2390        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
2391
2392        Example:
2393            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
2394            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
2395
2396        Args:
2397            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2398                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2399            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2400                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2401            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2402            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2403            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2404
2405        Returns:
2406            Select: the modified expression.
2407        """
2408        return _apply_list_builder(
2409            *expressions,
2410            instance=self,
2411            arg="laterals",
2412            append=append,
2413            into=Lateral,
2414            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
2415            dialect=dialect,
2416            copy=copy,
2417            **opts,
2418        )
2419
2420    def join(
2421        self,
2422        expression,
2423        on=None,
2424        using=None,
2425        append=True,
2426        join_type=None,
2427        join_alias=None,
2428        dialect=None,
2429        copy=True,
2430        **opts,
2431    ) -> Select:
2432        """
2433        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
2434
2435        Example:
2436            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
2437            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
2438
2439            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
2440            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
2441
2442            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
2443
2444            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
2445            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
2446
2447        Args:
2448            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2449                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2450            on (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
2451                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2452            using (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
2453                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2454            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2455                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2456            join_type (str): If set, alter the parsed join type
2457            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2458            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2459            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2460
2461        Returns:
2462            Select: the modified expression.
2463        """
2464        parse_args = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
2465
2466        try:
2467            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
2468        except ParseError:
2469            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
2470
2471        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
2472
2473        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
2474            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
2475
2476        if join_type:
2477            natural: t.Optional[Token]
2478            side: t.Optional[Token]
2479            kind: t.Optional[Token]
2480
2481            natural, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
2482
2483            if natural:
2484                join.set("natural", True)
2485            if side:
2486                join.set("side", side.text)
2487            if kind:
2488                join.set("kind", kind.text)
2489
2490        if on:
2491            on = and_(*ensure_collection(on), dialect=dialect, **opts)
2492            join.set("on", on)
2493
2494        if using:
2495            join = _apply_list_builder(
2496                *ensure_collection(using),
2497                instance=join,
2498                arg="using",
2499                append=append,
2500                copy=copy,
2501                **opts,
2502            )
2503
2504        if join_alias:
2505            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
2506        return _apply_list_builder(
2507            join,
2508            instance=self,
2509            arg="joins",
2510            append=append,
2511            copy=copy,
2512            **opts,
2513        )
2514
2515    def where(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2516        """
2517        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
2518
2519        Example:
2520            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
2521            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
2522
2523        Args:
2524            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2525                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2526                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2527            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2528                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2529            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2530            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2531            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2532
2533        Returns:
2534            Select: the modified expression.
2535        """
2536        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2537            *expressions,
2538            instance=self,
2539            arg="where",
2540            append=append,
2541            into=Where,
2542            dialect=dialect,
2543            copy=copy,
2544            **opts,
2545        )
2546
2547    def having(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2548        """
2549        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
2550
2551        Example:
2552            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
2553            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
2554
2555        Args:
2556            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2557                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2558                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2559            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2560                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2561            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2562            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2563            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2564
2565        Returns:
2566            Select: the modified expression.
2567        """
2568        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2569            *expressions,
2570            instance=self,
2571            arg="having",
2572            append=append,
2573            into=Having,
2574            dialect=dialect,
2575            copy=copy,
2576            **opts,
2577        )
2578
2579    def window(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2580        return _apply_list_builder(
2581            *expressions,
2582            instance=self,
2583            arg="windows",
2584            append=append,
2585            into=Window,
2586            dialect=dialect,
2587            copy=copy,
2588            **opts,
2589        )
2590
2591    def qualify(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2592        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2593            *expressions,
2594            instance=self,
2595            arg="qualify",
2596            append=append,
2597            into=Qualify,
2598            dialect=dialect,
2599            copy=copy,
2600            **opts,
2601        )
2602
2603    def distinct(self, distinct=True, copy=True) -> Select:
2604        """
2605        Set the OFFSET expression.
2606
2607        Example:
2608            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
2609            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
2610
2611        Args:
2612            distinct (bool): whether the Select should be distinct
2613            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2614
2615        Returns:
2616            Select: the modified expression.
2617        """
2618        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2619        instance.set("distinct", Distinct() if distinct else None)
2620        return instance
2621
2622    def ctas(self, table, properties=None, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Create:
2623        """
2624        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
2625
2626        Example:
2627            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
2628            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
2629
2630        Args:
2631            table (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2632                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2633            properties (dict): an optional mapping of table properties
2634            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input table.
2635            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2636            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input table.
2637
2638        Returns:
2639            Create: the CREATE TABLE AS expression
2640        """
2641        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2642        table_expression = maybe_parse(
2643            table,
2644            into=Table,
2645            dialect=dialect,
2646            **opts,
2647        )
2648        properties_expression = None
2649        if properties:
2650            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
2651
2652        return Create(
2653            this=table_expression,
2654            kind="table",
2655            expression=instance,
2656            properties=properties_expression,
2657        )
2658
2659    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
2660        """
2661        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
2662
2663        Examples:
2664            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
2665            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
2666
2667            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
2668            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
2669
2670        Args:
2671            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
2672            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2673
2674        Returns:
2675            The modified expression.
2676        """
2677
2678        inst = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2679        inst.set("lock", Lock(update=update))
2680
2681        return inst
2682
2683    @property
2684    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2685        return [e.output_name for e in self.expressions if e.alias_or_name]
2686
2687    @property
2688    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2689        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
2690
2691    @property
2692    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2693        return self.expressions
def from_( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2121    def from_(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2122        """
2123        Set the FROM expression.
2124
2125        Example:
2126            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
2127            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
2128
2129        Args:
2130            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2131                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2132                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
2133            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2134                Otherwise, this flattens all the `From` expression into a single expression.
2135            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2136            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2137            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2138
2139        Returns:
2140            Select: the modified expression.
2141        """
2142        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2143            *expressions,
2144            instance=self,
2145            arg="from",
2146            append=append,
2147            copy=copy,
2148            prefix="FROM",
2149            into=From,
2150            dialect=dialect,
2151            **opts,
2152        )

Set the FROM expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If a From instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a From.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this flattens all the From expression into a single expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def group_by( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2154    def group_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2155        """
2156        Set the GROUP BY expression.
2157
2158        Example:
2159            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
2160            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
2161
2162        Args:
2163            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2164                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2165                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
2166                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
2167            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2168                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
2169            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2170            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2171            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2172
2173        Returns:
2174            Select: the modified expression.
2175        """
2176        if not expressions:
2177            return self if not copy else self.copy()
2178        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2179            *expressions,
2180            instance=self,
2181            arg="group",
2182            append=append,
2183            copy=copy,
2184            prefix="GROUP BY",
2185            into=Group,
2186            dialect=dialect,
2187            **opts,
2188        )

Set the GROUP BY expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If a Group instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a Group. If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this flattens all the Group expression into a single expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def order_by( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2190    def order_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2191        """
2192        Set the ORDER BY expression.
2193
2194        Example:
2195            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
2196            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
2197
2198        Args:
2199            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2200                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2201                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
2202            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2203                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2204            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2205            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2206            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2207
2208        Returns:
2209            Select: the modified expression.
2210        """
2211        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2212            *expressions,
2213            instance=self,
2214            arg="order",
2215            append=append,
2216            copy=copy,
2217            prefix="ORDER BY",
2218            into=Order,
2219            dialect=dialect,
2220            **opts,
2221        )

Set the ORDER BY expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If a Group instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a Order.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this flattens all the Order expression into a single expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def sort_by( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2223    def sort_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2224        """
2225        Set the SORT BY expression.
2226
2227        Example:
2228            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql()
2229            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
2230
2231        Args:
2232            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2233                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2234                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
2235            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2236                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2237            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2238            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2239            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2240
2241        Returns:
2242            Select: the modified expression.
2243        """
2244        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2245            *expressions,
2246            instance=self,
2247            arg="sort",
2248            append=append,
2249            copy=copy,
2250            prefix="SORT BY",
2251            into=Sort,
2252            dialect=dialect,
2253            **opts,
2254        )

Set the SORT BY expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If a Group instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a SORT.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this flattens all the Order expression into a single expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def cluster_by( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2256    def cluster_by(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2257        """
2258        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
2259
2260        Example:
2261            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql()
2262            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
2263
2264        Args:
2265            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2266                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2267                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
2268            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2269                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2270            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2271            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2272            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2273
2274        Returns:
2275            Select: the modified expression.
2276        """
2277        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2278            *expressions,
2279            instance=self,
2280            arg="cluster",
2281            append=append,
2282            copy=copy,
2283            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
2284            into=Cluster,
2285            dialect=dialect,
2286            **opts,
2287        )

Set the CLUSTER BY expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If a Group instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a Cluster.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this flattens all the Order expression into a single expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def limit( self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2289    def limit(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2290        """
2291        Set the LIMIT expression.
2292
2293        Example:
2294            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").limit(10).sql()
2295            'SELECT x FROM tbl LIMIT 10'
2296
2297        Args:
2298            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2299                This can also be an integer.
2300                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2301                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
2302            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2303            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2304            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2305
2306        Returns:
2307            Select: the modified expression.
2308        """
2309        return _apply_builder(
2310            expression=expression,
2311            instance=self,
2312            arg="limit",
2313            into=Limit,
2314            prefix="LIMIT",
2315            dialect=dialect,
2316            copy=copy,
2317            **opts,
2318        )

Set the LIMIT expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").limit(10).sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl LIMIT 10'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse. This can also be an integer. If a Limit instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a Limit.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def offset( self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2320    def offset(self, expression, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2321        """
2322        Set the OFFSET expression.
2323
2324        Example:
2325            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
2326            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
2327
2328        Args:
2329            expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2330                This can also be an integer.
2331                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2332                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
2333            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2334            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2335            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2336
2337        Returns:
2338            Select: the modified expression.
2339        """
2340        return _apply_builder(
2341            expression=expression,
2342            instance=self,
2343            arg="offset",
2344            into=Offset,
2345            prefix="OFFSET",
2346            dialect=dialect,
2347            copy=copy,
2348            **opts,
2349        )

Set the OFFSET expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | int | Expression): the SQL code string to parse. This can also be an integer. If a Offset instance is passed, this is used as-is. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a Offset.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def select( self, *expressions: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], append: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2351    def select(
2352        self,
2353        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2354        append: bool = True,
2355        dialect: DialectType = None,
2356        copy: bool = True,
2357        **opts,
2358    ) -> Select:
2359        """
2360        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
2361
2362        Example:
2363            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
2364            'SELECT x, y'
2365
2366        Args:
2367            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2368                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2369            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2370                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2371            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2372            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2373            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2374
2375        Returns:
2376            Select: the modified expression.
2377        """
2378        return _apply_list_builder(
2379            *expressions,
2380            instance=self,
2381            arg="expressions",
2382            append=append,
2383            dialect=dialect,
2384            copy=copy,
2385            **opts,
2386        )

Append to or set the SELECT expressions.

Example:
>>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
'SELECT x, y'
Arguments:
  • *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • append: if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy: if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def lateral( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2388    def lateral(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2389        """
2390        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
2391
2392        Example:
2393            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
2394            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
2395
2396        Args:
2397            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2398                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2399            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2400                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2401            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2402            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2403            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2404
2405        Returns:
2406            Select: the modified expression.
2407        """
2408        return _apply_list_builder(
2409            *expressions,
2410            instance=self,
2411            arg="laterals",
2412            append=append,
2413            into=Lateral,
2414            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
2415            dialect=dialect,
2416            copy=copy,
2417            **opts,
2418        )

Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.

Example:
>>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def join( self, expression, on=None, using=None, append=True, join_type=None, join_alias=None, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2420    def join(
2421        self,
2422        expression,
2423        on=None,
2424        using=None,
2425        append=True,
2426        join_type=None,
2427        join_alias=None,
2428        dialect=None,
2429        copy=True,
2430        **opts,
2431    ) -> Select:
2432        """
2433        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
2434
2435        Example:
2436            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
2437            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
2438
2439            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
2440            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
2441
2442            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
2443
2444            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
2445            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
2446
2447        Args:
2448            expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
2449                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2450            on (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
2451                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2452            using (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
2453                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2454            append (bool): if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2455                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2456            join_type (str): If set, alter the parsed join type
2457            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2458            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2459            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2460
2461        Returns:
2462            Select: the modified expression.
2463        """
2464        parse_args = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
2465
2466        try:
2467            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
2468        except ParseError:
2469            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
2470
2471        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
2472
2473        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
2474            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
2475
2476        if join_type:
2477            natural: t.Optional[Token]
2478            side: t.Optional[Token]
2479            kind: t.Optional[Token]
2480
2481            natural, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
2482
2483            if natural:
2484                join.set("natural", True)
2485            if side:
2486                join.set("side", side.text)
2487            if kind:
2488                join.set("kind", kind.text)
2489
2490        if on:
2491            on = and_(*ensure_collection(on), dialect=dialect, **opts)
2492            join.set("on", on)
2493
2494        if using:
2495            join = _apply_list_builder(
2496                *ensure_collection(using),
2497                instance=join,
2498                arg="using",
2499                append=append,
2500                copy=copy,
2501                **opts,
2502            )
2503
2504        if join_alias:
2505            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
2506        return _apply_list_builder(
2507            join,
2508            instance=self,
2509            arg="joins",
2510            append=append,
2511            copy=copy,
2512            **opts,
2513        )

Append to or set the JOIN expressions.

Example:
>>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
>>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'

Use join_type to change the type of join:

>>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • on (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • using (str | Expression): optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • append (bool): if True, add to any existing expressions. Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
  • join_type (str): If set, alter the parsed join type
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def where( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2515    def where(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2516        """
2517        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
2518
2519        Example:
2520            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
2521            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
2522
2523        Args:
2524            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2525                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2526                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2527            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2528                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2529            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2530            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2531            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2532
2533        Returns:
2534            Select: the modified expression.
2535        """
2536        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2537            *expressions,
2538            instance=self,
2539            arg="where",
2540            append=append,
2541            into=Where,
2542            dialect=dialect,
2543            copy=copy,
2544            **opts,
2545        )

Append to or set the WHERE expressions.

Example:
>>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
"SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is. Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
  • append (bool): if True, AND the new expressions to any existing expression. Otherwise, this resets the expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def having( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2547    def having(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2548        """
2549        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
2550
2551        Example:
2552            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
2553            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
2554
2555        Args:
2556            *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
2557                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2558                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2559            append (bool): if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2560                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2561            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2562            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2563            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2564
2565        Returns:
2566            Select: the modified expression.
2567        """
2568        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2569            *expressions,
2570            instance=self,
2571            arg="having",
2572            append=append,
2573            into=Having,
2574            dialect=dialect,
2575            copy=copy,
2576            **opts,
2577        )

Append to or set the HAVING expressions.

Example:
>>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is. Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
  • append (bool): if True, AND the new expressions to any existing expression. Otherwise, this resets the expression.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def window( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2579    def window(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2580        return _apply_list_builder(
2581            *expressions,
2582            instance=self,
2583            arg="windows",
2584            append=append,
2585            into=Window,
2586            dialect=dialect,
2587            copy=copy,
2588            **opts,
2589        )
def qualify( self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2591    def qualify(self, *expressions, append=True, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Select:
2592        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
2593            *expressions,
2594            instance=self,
2595            arg="qualify",
2596            append=append,
2597            into=Qualify,
2598            dialect=dialect,
2599            copy=copy,
2600            **opts,
2601        )
def distinct(self, distinct=True, copy=True) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2603    def distinct(self, distinct=True, copy=True) -> Select:
2604        """
2605        Set the OFFSET expression.
2606
2607        Example:
2608            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
2609            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
2610
2611        Args:
2612            distinct (bool): whether the Select should be distinct
2613            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2614
2615        Returns:
2616            Select: the modified expression.
2617        """
2618        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2619        instance.set("distinct", Distinct() if distinct else None)
2620        return instance

Set the OFFSET expression.

Example:
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • distinct (bool): whether the Select should be distinct
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
Returns:

Select: the modified expression.

def ctas( self, table, properties=None, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Create:
2622    def ctas(self, table, properties=None, dialect=None, copy=True, **opts) -> Create:
2623        """
2624        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
2625
2626        Example:
2627            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
2628            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
2629
2630        Args:
2631            table (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2632                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2633            properties (dict): an optional mapping of table properties
2634            dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input table.
2635            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2636            opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input table.
2637
2638        Returns:
2639            Create: the CREATE TABLE AS expression
2640        """
2641        instance = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2642        table_expression = maybe_parse(
2643            table,
2644            into=Table,
2645            dialect=dialect,
2646            **opts,
2647        )
2648        properties_expression = None
2649        if properties:
2650            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
2651
2652        return Create(
2653            this=table_expression,
2654            kind="table",
2655            expression=instance,
2656            properties=properties_expression,
2657        )

Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.

Example:
>>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • table (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the table name. If another Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • properties (dict): an optional mapping of table properties
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input table.
  • copy (bool): if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input table.
Returns:

Create: the CREATE TABLE AS expression

def lock( self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
2659    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
2660        """
2661        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
2662
2663        Examples:
2664            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
2665            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
2666
2667            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
2668            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
2669
2670        Args:
2671            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
2672            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2673
2674        Returns:
2675            The modified expression.
2676        """
2677
2678        inst = _maybe_copy(self, copy)
2679        inst.set("lock", Lock(update=update))
2680
2681        return inst

Set the locking read mode for this expression.

Examples:
>>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
"SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
>>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
"SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
Arguments:
  • update: if True, the locking type will be FOR UPDATE, else it will be FOR SHARE.
  • copy: if False, modify this expression instance in-place.
Returns:

The modified expression.

is_star: bool

Checks whether an expression is a star.

class Subquery(DerivedTable, Unionable):
2696class Subquery(DerivedTable, Unionable):
2697    arg_types = {
2698        "this": True,
2699        "alias": False,
2700        "with": False,
2701        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2702    }
2703
2704    def unnest(self):
2705        """
2706        Returns the first non subquery.
2707        """
2708        expression = self
2709        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
2710            expression = expression.this
2711        return expression
2712
2713    @property
2714    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2715        return self.this.is_star
2716
2717    @property
2718    def output_name(self):
2719        return self.alias
def unnest(self):
2704    def unnest(self):
2705        """
2706        Returns the first non subquery.
2707        """
2708        expression = self
2709        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
2710            expression = expression.this
2711        return expression

Returns the first non subquery.

is_star: bool

Checks whether an expression is a star.

output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
class TableSample(Expression):
2722class TableSample(Expression):
2723    arg_types = {
2724        "this": False,
2725        "method": False,
2726        "bucket_numerator": False,
2727        "bucket_denominator": False,
2728        "bucket_field": False,
2729        "percent": False,
2730        "rows": False,
2731        "size": False,
2732        "seed": False,
2733        "kind": False,
2734    }
class Tag(Expression):
2737class Tag(Expression):
2738    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
2739
2740    arg_types = {
2741        "this": False,
2742        "prefix": False,
2743        "postfix": False,
2744    }

Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT x.

class Pivot(Expression):
2747class Pivot(Expression):
2748    arg_types = {
2749        "this": False,
2750        "alias": False,
2751        "expressions": True,
2752        "field": True,
2753        "unpivot": True,
2754    }
class Window(Expression):
2757class Window(Expression):
2758    arg_types = {
2759        "this": True,
2760        "partition_by": False,
2761        "order": False,
2762        "spec": False,
2763        "alias": False,
2764    }
class WindowSpec(Expression):
2767class WindowSpec(Expression):
2768    arg_types = {
2769        "kind": False,
2770        "start": False,
2771        "start_side": False,
2772        "end": False,
2773        "end_side": False,
2774    }
class Where(Expression):
2777class Where(Expression):
2778    pass
class Star(Expression):
2781class Star(Expression):
2782    arg_types = {"except": False, "replace": False}
2783
2784    @property
2785    def name(self) -> str:
2786        return "*"
2787
2788    @property
2789    def output_name(self):
2790        return self.name
output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
class Parameter(Expression):
2793class Parameter(Expression):
2794    arg_types = {"this": True, "wrapped": False}
class SessionParameter(Expression):
2797class SessionParameter(Expression):
2798    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
class Placeholder(Expression):
2801class Placeholder(Expression):
2802    arg_types = {"this": False}
class Null(Condition):
2805class Null(Condition):
2806    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
2807
2808    @property
2809    def name(self) -> str:
2810        return "NULL"
class Boolean(Condition):
2813class Boolean(Condition):
2814    pass
class DataType(Expression):
2817class DataType(Expression):
2818    arg_types = {
2819        "this": True,
2820        "expressions": False,
2821        "nested": False,
2822        "values": False,
2823        "prefix": False,
2824    }
2825
2826    class Type(AutoName):
2827        CHAR = auto()
2828        NCHAR = auto()
2829        VARCHAR = auto()
2830        NVARCHAR = auto()
2831        TEXT = auto()
2832        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
2833        LONGTEXT = auto()
2834        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
2835        LONGBLOB = auto()
2836        BINARY = auto()
2837        VARBINARY = auto()
2838        INT = auto()
2839        UINT = auto()
2840        TINYINT = auto()
2841        UTINYINT = auto()
2842        SMALLINT = auto()
2843        USMALLINT = auto()
2844        BIGINT = auto()
2845        UBIGINT = auto()
2846        FLOAT = auto()
2847        DOUBLE = auto()
2848        DECIMAL = auto()
2849        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
2850        BIT = auto()
2851        BOOLEAN = auto()
2852        JSON = auto()
2853        JSONB = auto()
2854        INTERVAL = auto()
2855        TIME = auto()
2856        TIMESTAMP = auto()
2857        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
2858        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
2859        DATE = auto()
2860        DATETIME = auto()
2861        ARRAY = auto()
2862        MAP = auto()
2863        UUID = auto()
2864        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
2865        GEOMETRY = auto()
2866        STRUCT = auto()
2867        NULLABLE = auto()
2868        HLLSKETCH = auto()
2869        HSTORE = auto()
2870        SUPER = auto()
2871        SERIAL = auto()
2872        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
2873        BIGSERIAL = auto()
2874        XML = auto()
2875        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
2876        MONEY = auto()
2877        SMALLMONEY = auto()
2878        ROWVERSION = auto()
2879        IMAGE = auto()
2880        VARIANT = auto()
2881        OBJECT = auto()
2882        INET = auto()
2883        NULL = auto()
2884        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation
2885
2886    TEXT_TYPES = {
2887        Type.CHAR,
2888        Type.NCHAR,
2889        Type.VARCHAR,
2890        Type.NVARCHAR,
2891        Type.TEXT,
2892    }
2893
2894    INTEGER_TYPES = {
2895        Type.INT,
2896        Type.TINYINT,
2897        Type.SMALLINT,
2898        Type.BIGINT,
2899    }
2900
2901    FLOAT_TYPES = {
2902        Type.FLOAT,
2903        Type.DOUBLE,
2904    }
2905
2906    NUMERIC_TYPES = {*INTEGER_TYPES, *FLOAT_TYPES}
2907
2908    TEMPORAL_TYPES = {
2909        Type.TIMESTAMP,
2910        Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
2911        Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ,
2912        Type.DATE,
2913        Type.DATETIME,
2914    }
2915
2916    @classmethod
2917    def build(
2918        cls, dtype: str | DataType | DataType.Type, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
2919    ) -> DataType:
2920        from sqlglot import parse_one
2921
2922        if isinstance(dtype, str):
2923            if dtype.upper() in cls.Type.__members__:
2924                data_type_exp: t.Optional[Expression] = DataType(this=DataType.Type[dtype.upper()])
2925            else:
2926                data_type_exp = parse_one(dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType)
2927            if data_type_exp is None:
2928                raise ValueError(f"Unparsable data type value: {dtype}")
2929        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
2930            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
2931        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
2932            return dtype
2933        else:
2934            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
2935        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
2936
2937    def is_type(self, dtype: DataType.Type) -> bool:
2938        return self.this == dtype
@classmethod
def build( cls, dtype: str | sqlglot.expressions.DataType | sqlglot.expressions.DataType.Type, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **kwargs) -> sqlglot.expressions.DataType:
2916    @classmethod
2917    def build(
2918        cls, dtype: str | DataType | DataType.Type, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
2919    ) -> DataType:
2920        from sqlglot import parse_one
2921
2922        if isinstance(dtype, str):
2923            if dtype.upper() in cls.Type.__members__:
2924                data_type_exp: t.Optional[Expression] = DataType(this=DataType.Type[dtype.upper()])
2925            else:
2926                data_type_exp = parse_one(dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType)
2927            if data_type_exp is None:
2928                raise ValueError(f"Unparsable data type value: {dtype}")
2929        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
2930            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
2931        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
2932            return dtype
2933        else:
2934            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
2935        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
def is_type(self, dtype: sqlglot.expressions.DataType.Type) -> bool:
2937    def is_type(self, dtype: DataType.Type) -> bool:
2938        return self.this == dtype
class DataType.Type(sqlglot.helper.AutoName):
2826    class Type(AutoName):
2827        CHAR = auto()
2828        NCHAR = auto()
2829        VARCHAR = auto()
2830        NVARCHAR = auto()
2831        TEXT = auto()
2832        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
2833        LONGTEXT = auto()
2834        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
2835        LONGBLOB = auto()
2836        BINARY = auto()
2837        VARBINARY = auto()
2838        INT = auto()
2839        UINT = auto()
2840        TINYINT = auto()
2841        UTINYINT = auto()
2842        SMALLINT = auto()
2843        USMALLINT = auto()
2844        BIGINT = auto()
2845        UBIGINT = auto()
2846        FLOAT = auto()
2847        DOUBLE = auto()
2848        DECIMAL = auto()
2849        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
2850        BIT = auto()
2851        BOOLEAN = auto()
2852        JSON = auto()
2853        JSONB = auto()
2854        INTERVAL = auto()
2855        TIME = auto()
2856        TIMESTAMP = auto()
2857        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
2858        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
2859        DATE = auto()
2860        DATETIME = auto()
2861        ARRAY = auto()
2862        MAP = auto()
2863        UUID = auto()
2864        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
2865        GEOMETRY = auto()
2866        STRUCT = auto()
2867        NULLABLE = auto()
2868        HLLSKETCH = auto()
2869        HSTORE = auto()
2870        SUPER = auto()
2871        SERIAL = auto()
2872        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
2873        BIGSERIAL = auto()
2874        XML = auto()
2875        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
2876        MONEY = auto()
2877        SMALLMONEY = auto()
2878        ROWVERSION = auto()
2879        IMAGE = auto()
2880        VARIANT = auto()
2881        OBJECT = auto()
2882        INET = auto()
2883        NULL = auto()
2884        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation

An enumeration.

CHAR = <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>
NCHAR = <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>
VARCHAR = <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>
NVARCHAR = <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>
TEXT = <Type.TEXT: 'TEXT'>
MEDIUMTEXT = <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>
LONGTEXT = <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>
MEDIUMBLOB = <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>
LONGBLOB = <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>
BINARY = <Type.BINARY: 'BINARY'>
VARBINARY = <Type.VARBINARY: 'VARBINARY'>
INT = <Type.INT: 'INT'>
UINT = <Type.UINT: 'UINT'>
TINYINT = <Type.TINYINT: 'TINYINT'>
UTINYINT = <Type.UTINYINT: 'UTINYINT'>
SMALLINT = <Type.SMALLINT: 'SMALLINT'>
USMALLINT = <Type.USMALLINT: 'USMALLINT'>
BIGINT = <Type.BIGINT: 'BIGINT'>
UBIGINT = <Type.UBIGINT: 'UBIGINT'>
FLOAT = <Type.FLOAT: 'FLOAT'>
DOUBLE = <Type.DOUBLE: 'DOUBLE'>
DECIMAL = <Type.DECIMAL: 'DECIMAL'>
BIGDECIMAL = <Type.BIGDECIMAL: 'BIGDECIMAL'>
BIT = <Type.BIT: 'BIT'>
BOOLEAN = <Type.BOOLEAN: 'BOOLEAN'>
JSON = <Type.JSON: 'JSON'>
JSONB = <Type.JSONB: 'JSONB'>
INTERVAL = <Type.INTERVAL: 'INTERVAL'>
TIME = <Type.TIME: 'TIME'>
TIMESTAMP = <Type.TIMESTAMP: 'TIMESTAMP'>
TIMESTAMPTZ = <Type.TIMESTAMPTZ: 'TIMESTAMPTZ'>
TIMESTAMPLTZ = <Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ: 'TIMESTAMPLTZ'>
DATE = <Type.DATE: 'DATE'>
DATETIME = <Type.DATETIME: 'DATETIME'>
ARRAY = <Type.ARRAY: 'ARRAY'>
MAP = <Type.MAP: 'MAP'>
UUID = <Type.UUID: 'UUID'>
GEOGRAPHY = <Type.GEOGRAPHY: 'GEOGRAPHY'>
GEOMETRY = <Type.GEOMETRY: 'GEOMETRY'>
STRUCT = <Type.STRUCT: 'STRUCT'>
NULLABLE = <Type.NULLABLE: 'NULLABLE'>
HLLSKETCH = <Type.HLLSKETCH: 'HLLSKETCH'>
HSTORE = <Type.HSTORE: 'HSTORE'>
SUPER = <Type.SUPER: 'SUPER'>
SERIAL = <Type.SERIAL: 'SERIAL'>
SMALLSERIAL = <Type.SMALLSERIAL: 'SMALLSERIAL'>
BIGSERIAL = <Type.BIGSERIAL: 'BIGSERIAL'>
XML = <Type.XML: 'XML'>
UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = <Type.UNIQUEIDENTIFIER: 'UNIQUEIDENTIFIER'>
MONEY = <Type.MONEY: 'MONEY'>
SMALLMONEY = <Type.SMALLMONEY: 'SMALLMONEY'>
ROWVERSION = <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>
IMAGE = <Type.IMAGE: 'IMAGE'>
VARIANT = <Type.VARIANT: 'VARIANT'>
OBJECT = <Type.OBJECT: 'OBJECT'>
INET = <Type.INET: 'INET'>
NULL = <Type.NULL: 'NULL'>
UNKNOWN = <Type.UNKNOWN: 'UNKNOWN'>
Inherited Members
enum.Enum
name
value
class PseudoType(Expression):
2942class PseudoType(Expression):
2943    pass
class StructKwarg(Expression):
2946class StructKwarg(Expression):
2947    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
2951class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
2952    pass
class All(SubqueryPredicate):
2955class All(SubqueryPredicate):
2956    pass
class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
2959class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
2960    pass
class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
2963class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
2964    pass
class Command(Expression):
2969class Command(Expression):
2970    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
class Transaction(Expression):
2973class Transaction(Expression):
2974    arg_types = {"this": False, "modes": False}
class Commit(Expression):
2977class Commit(Expression):
2978    arg_types = {"chain": False}
class Rollback(Expression):
2981class Rollback(Expression):
2982    arg_types = {"savepoint": False}
class AlterTable(Expression):
2985class AlterTable(Expression):
2986    arg_types = {"this": True, "actions": True, "exists": False}
class AddConstraint(Expression):
2989class AddConstraint(Expression):
2990    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "enforced": False}
class DropPartition(Expression):
2993class DropPartition(Expression):
2994    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
class Binary(Expression):
2998class Binary(Expression):
2999    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3000
3001    @property
3002    def left(self):
3003        return self.this
3004
3005    @property
3006    def right(self):
3007        return self.expression
class Add(Binary):
3010class Add(Binary):
3011    pass
class Connector(Binary, Condition):
3014class Connector(Binary, Condition):
3015    pass
class And(Connector):
3018class And(Connector):
3019    pass
class Or(Connector):
3022class Or(Connector):
3023    pass
class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
3026class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
3027    pass
class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
3030class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
3031    pass
class BitwiseOr(Binary):
3034class BitwiseOr(Binary):
3035    pass
class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
3038class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
3039    pass
class BitwiseXor(Binary):
3042class BitwiseXor(Binary):
3043    pass
class Div(Binary):
3046class Div(Binary):
3047    pass
class Overlaps(Binary):
3050class Overlaps(Binary):
3051    pass
class Dot(Binary):
3054class Dot(Binary):
3055    @property
3056    def name(self) -> str:
3057        return self.expression.name
3058
3059    @classmethod
3060    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
3061        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
3062        if len(expressions) < 2:
3063            raise ValueError(f"Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
3064
3065        a, b, *expressions = expressions
3066        dot = Dot(this=a, expression=b)
3067
3068        for expression in expressions:
3069            dot = Dot(this=dot, expression=expression)
3070
3071        return dot
@classmethod
def build( self, expressions: Sequence[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]) -> sqlglot.expressions.Dot:
3059    @classmethod
3060    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
3061        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
3062        if len(expressions) < 2:
3063            raise ValueError(f"Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
3064
3065        a, b, *expressions = expressions
3066        dot = Dot(this=a, expression=b)
3067
3068        for expression in expressions:
3069            dot = Dot(this=dot, expression=expression)
3070
3071        return dot

Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions.

class DPipe(Binary):
3074class DPipe(Binary):
3075    pass
class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
3078class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
3079    pass
class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3082class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3083    pass
class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3086class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3087    pass
class Distance(Binary):
3090class Distance(Binary):
3091    pass
class Escape(Binary):
3094class Escape(Binary):
3095    pass
class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
3098class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
3099    pass
class GT(Binary, Predicate):
3102class GT(Binary, Predicate):
3103    pass
class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
3106class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
3107    pass
class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
3110class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
3111    pass
class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3114class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3115    pass
class IntDiv(Binary):
3118class IntDiv(Binary):
3119    pass
class Is(Binary, Predicate):
3122class Is(Binary, Predicate):
3123    pass
class Kwarg(Binary):
3126class Kwarg(Binary):
3127    """Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y)."""

Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y).

class Like(Binary, Predicate):
3130class Like(Binary, Predicate):
3131    pass
class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3134class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3135    pass
class LT(Binary, Predicate):
3138class LT(Binary, Predicate):
3139    pass
class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
3142class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
3143    pass
class Mod(Binary):
3146class Mod(Binary):
3147    pass
class Mul(Binary):
3150class Mul(Binary):
3151    pass
class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3154class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3155    pass
class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
3158class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
3159    pass
class Slice(Binary):
3162class Slice(Binary):
3163    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
class Sub(Binary):
3166class Sub(Binary):
3167    pass
class ArrayOverlaps(Binary):
3170class ArrayOverlaps(Binary):
3171    pass
class Unary(Expression):
3176class Unary(Expression):
3177    pass
class BitwiseNot(Unary):
3180class BitwiseNot(Unary):
3181    pass
class Not(Unary, Condition):
3184class Not(Unary, Condition):
3185    pass
class Paren(Unary, Condition):
3188class Paren(Unary, Condition):
3189    arg_types = {"this": True, "with": False}
class Neg(Unary):
3192class Neg(Unary):
3193    pass
class Alias(Expression):
3196class Alias(Expression):
3197    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": False}
3198
3199    @property
3200    def output_name(self):
3201        return self.alias
output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
class Aliases(Expression):
3204class Aliases(Expression):
3205    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
3206
3207    @property
3208    def aliases(self):
3209        return self.expressions
class AtTimeZone(Expression):
3212class AtTimeZone(Expression):
3213    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
class Between(Predicate):
3216class Between(Predicate):
3217    arg_types = {"this": True, "low": True, "high": True}
class Bracket(Condition):
3220class Bracket(Condition):
3221    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
class Distinct(Expression):
3224class Distinct(Expression):
3225    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "on": False}
class In(Predicate):
3228class In(Predicate):
3229    arg_types = {
3230        "this": True,
3231        "expressions": False,
3232        "query": False,
3233        "unnest": False,
3234        "field": False,
3235        "is_global": False,
3236    }
class TimeUnit(Expression):
3239class TimeUnit(Expression):
3240    """Automatically converts unit arg into a var."""
3241
3242    arg_types = {"unit": False}
3243
3244    def __init__(self, **args):
3245        unit = args.get("unit")
3246        if isinstance(unit, (Column, Literal)):
3247            args["unit"] = Var(this=unit.name)
3248        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
3249            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name))
3250        super().__init__(**args)

Automatically converts unit arg into a var.

TimeUnit(**args)
3244    def __init__(self, **args):
3245        unit = args.get("unit")
3246        if isinstance(unit, (Column, Literal)):
3247            args["unit"] = Var(this=unit.name)
3248        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
3249            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name))
3250        super().__init__(**args)
class Interval(TimeUnit):
3253class Interval(TimeUnit):
3254    arg_types = {"this": False, "unit": False}
class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
3257class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
3258    pass
class RespectNulls(Expression):
3261class RespectNulls(Expression):
3262    pass
class Func(Condition):
3266class Func(Condition):
3267    """
3268    The base class for all function expressions.
3269
3270    Attributes:
3271        is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be
3272            treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
3273        _sql_names (list): determines the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items)
3274            for this function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing
3275            as well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL
3276            name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
3277    """
3278
3279    is_var_len_args = False
3280
3281    @classmethod
3282    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
3283        if cls.is_var_len_args:
3284            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
3285            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
3286            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
3287            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
3288
3289            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
3290            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
3291        else:
3292            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
3293
3294        return cls(**args_dict)
3295
3296    @classmethod
3297    def sql_names(cls):
3298        if cls is Func:
3299            raise NotImplementedError(
3300                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
3301            )
3302        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
3303            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
3304        return cls._sql_names
3305
3306    @classmethod
3307    def sql_name(cls):
3308        return cls.sql_names()[0]
3309
3310    @classmethod
3311    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
3312        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}

The base class for all function expressions.

Attributes:
  • is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
  • _sql_names (list): determines the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items) for this function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing as well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
@classmethod
def from_arg_list(cls, args):
3281    @classmethod
3282    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
3283        if cls.is_var_len_args:
3284            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
3285            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
3286            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
3287            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
3288
3289            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
3290            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
3291        else:
3292            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
3293
3294        return cls(**args_dict)
@classmethod
def sql_names(cls):
3296    @classmethod
3297    def sql_names(cls):
3298        if cls is Func:
3299            raise NotImplementedError(
3300                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
3301            )
3302        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
3303            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
3304        return cls._sql_names
@classmethod
def sql_name(cls):
3306    @classmethod
3307    def sql_name(cls):
3308        return cls.sql_names()[0]
@classmethod
def default_parser_mappings(cls):
3310    @classmethod
3311    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
3312        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}
class AggFunc(Func):
3315class AggFunc(Func):
3316    pass
class Abs(Func):
3319class Abs(Func):
3320    pass
class Anonymous(Func):
3323class Anonymous(Func):
3324    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3325    is_var_len_args = True
class Hll(AggFunc):
3330class Hll(AggFunc):
3331    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3332    is_var_len_args = True
class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
3335class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
3336    arg_types = {"this": True, "accuracy": False}
class Array(Func):
3339class Array(Func):
3340    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
3341    is_var_len_args = True
class ToChar(Func):
3345class ToChar(Func):
3346    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
class GenerateSeries(Func):
3349class GenerateSeries(Func):
3350    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "step": False}
class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
3353class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
3354    pass
class ArrayAll(Func):
3357class ArrayAll(Func):
3358    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class ArrayAny(Func):
3361class ArrayAny(Func):
3362    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class ArrayConcat(Func):
3365class ArrayConcat(Func):
3366    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3367    is_var_len_args = True
class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
3370class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
3371    pass
class ArrayContained(Binary):
3374class ArrayContained(Binary):
3375    pass
class ArrayFilter(Func):
3378class ArrayFilter(Func):
3379    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3380    _sql_names = ["FILTER", "ARRAY_FILTER"]
class ArrayJoin(Func):
3383class ArrayJoin(Func):
3384    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
class ArraySize(Func):
3387class ArraySize(Func):
3388    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
class ArraySort(Func):
3391class ArraySort(Func):
3392    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
class ArraySum(Func):
3395class ArraySum(Func):
3396    pass
class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
3399class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
3400    pass
class Avg(AggFunc):
3403class Avg(AggFunc):
3404    pass
class AnyValue(AggFunc):
3407class AnyValue(AggFunc):
3408    pass
class Case(Func):
3411class Case(Func):
3412    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
class Cast(Func):
3415class Cast(Func):
3416    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True}
3417
3418    @property
3419    def name(self) -> str:
3420        return self.this.name
3421
3422    @property
3423    def to(self):
3424        return self.args["to"]
3425
3426    @property
3427    def output_name(self):
3428        return self.name
3429
3430    def is_type(self, dtype: DataType.Type) -> bool:
3431        return self.to.is_type(dtype)
output_name

Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.

If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.

Example:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
'a'
>>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
'c'
>>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
''
def is_type(self, dtype: sqlglot.expressions.DataType.Type) -> bool:
3430    def is_type(self, dtype: DataType.Type) -> bool:
3431        return self.to.is_type(dtype)
class Collate(Binary):
3434class Collate(Binary):
3435    pass
class TryCast(Cast):
3438class TryCast(Cast):
3439    pass
class Ceil(Func):
3442class Ceil(Func):
3443    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
3444    _sql_names = ["CEIL", "CEILING"]
class Coalesce(Func):
3447class Coalesce(Func):
3448    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3449    is_var_len_args = True
class Concat(Func):
3452class Concat(Func):
3453    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
3454    is_var_len_args = True
class ConcatWs(Concat):
3457class ConcatWs(Concat):
3458    _sql_names = ["CONCAT_WS"]
class Count(AggFunc):
3461class Count(AggFunc):
3462    arg_types = {"this": False}
class CountIf(AggFunc):
3465class CountIf(AggFunc):
3466    pass
class CurrentDate(Func):
3469class CurrentDate(Func):
3470    arg_types = {"this": False}
class CurrentDatetime(Func):
3473class CurrentDatetime(Func):
3474    arg_types = {"this": False}
class CurrentTime(Func):
3477class CurrentTime(Func):
3478    arg_types = {"this": False}
class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
3481class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
3482    arg_types = {"this": False}
class CurrentUser(Func):
3485class CurrentUser(Func):
3486    arg_types = {"this": False}
class DateAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3489class DateAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3490    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class DateSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3493class DateSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3494    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3497class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3498    _sql_names = ["DATEDIFF", "DATE_DIFF"]
3499    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class DateTrunc(Func):
3502class DateTrunc(Func):
3503    arg_types = {"unit": True, "this": True, "zone": False}
class DatetimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3506class DatetimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3507    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class DatetimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3510class DatetimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3511    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3514class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3515    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3518class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3519    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
class DayOfWeek(Func):
3522class DayOfWeek(Func):
3523    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_WEEK", "DAYOFWEEK"]
class DayOfMonth(Func):
3526class DayOfMonth(Func):
3527    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_MONTH", "DAYOFMONTH"]
class DayOfYear(Func):
3530class DayOfYear(Func):
3531    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_YEAR", "DAYOFYEAR"]
class WeekOfYear(Func):
3534class WeekOfYear(Func):
3535    _sql_names = ["WEEK_OF_YEAR", "WEEKOFYEAR"]
class LastDateOfMonth(Func):
3538class LastDateOfMonth(Func):
3539    pass
class Extract(Func):
3542class Extract(Func):
3543    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3546class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3547    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3550class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3551    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3554class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3555    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3558class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3559    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3562class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3563    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3566class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
3567    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3570class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
3571    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3574class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
3575    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
class DateFromParts(Func):
3578class DateFromParts(Func):
3579    _sql_names = ["DATEFROMPARTS"]
3580    arg_types = {"year": True, "month": True, "day": True}
class DateStrToDate(Func):
3583class DateStrToDate(Func):
3584    pass
class DateToDateStr(Func):
3587class DateToDateStr(Func):
3588    pass
class DateToDi(Func):
3591class DateToDi(Func):
3592    pass
class Day(Func):
3595class Day(Func):
3596    pass
class Decode(Func):
3599class Decode(Func):
3600    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True, "replace": False}
class DiToDate(Func):
3603class DiToDate(Func):
3604    pass
class Encode(Func):
3607class Encode(Func):
3608    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True}
class Exp(Func):
3611class Exp(Func):
3612    pass
class Explode(Func):
3615class Explode(Func):
3616    pass
class ExponentialTimeDecayedAvg(AggFunc):
3619class ExponentialTimeDecayedAvg(AggFunc):
3620    arg_types = {"this": True, "time": False, "decay": False}
class Floor(Func):
3623class Floor(Func):
3624    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
class Greatest(Func):
3627class Greatest(Func):
3628    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3629    is_var_len_args = True
class GroupConcat(Func):
3632class GroupConcat(Func):
3633    arg_types = {"this": True, "separator": False}
class GroupUniqArray(AggFunc):
3636class GroupUniqArray(AggFunc):
3637    arg_types = {"this": True, "size": False}
class Hex(Func):
3640class Hex(Func):
3641    pass
class Histogram(AggFunc):
3644class Histogram(AggFunc):
3645    arg_types = {"this": True, "bins": False}
class If(Func):
3648class If(Func):
3649    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
class IfNull(Func):
3652class IfNull(Func):
3653    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3654    _sql_names = ["IFNULL", "NVL"]
class Initcap(Func):
3657class Initcap(Func):
3658    pass
class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
3661class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
3662    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class JSONObject(Func):
3665class JSONObject(Func):
3666    arg_types = {
3667        "expressions": False,
3668        "null_handling": False,
3669        "unique_keys": False,
3670        "return_type": False,
3671        "format_json": False,
3672        "encoding": False,
3673    }
class JSONBContains(Binary):
3676class JSONBContains(Binary):
3677    _sql_names = ["JSONB_CONTAINS"]
class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
3680class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
3681    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT"]
class JSONExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
3684class JSONExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
3685    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
class JSONBExtract(JSONExtract):
3688class JSONBExtract(JSONExtract):
3689    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT"]
class JSONBExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
3692class JSONBExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
3693    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
class JSONFormat(Func):
3696class JSONFormat(Func):
3697    arg_types = {"this": False, "options": False}
3698    _sql_names = ["JSON_FORMAT"]
class Least(Func):
3701class Least(Func):
3702    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
3703    is_var_len_args = True
class Length(Func):
3706class Length(Func):
3707    pass
class Levenshtein(Func):
3710class Levenshtein(Func):
3711    arg_types = {
3712        "this": True,
3713        "expression": False,
3714        "ins_cost": False,
3715        "del_cost": False,
3716        "sub_cost": False,
3717    }
class Ln(Func):
3720class Ln(Func):
3721    pass
class Log(Func):
3724class Log(Func):
3725    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
class Log2(Func):
3728class Log2(Func):
3729    pass
class Log10(Func):
3732class Log10(Func):
3733    pass
class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
3736class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
3737    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_OR", "BOOL_OR", "BOOLOR_AGG"]
class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
3740class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
3741    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_AND", "BOOL_AND", "BOOLAND_AGG"]
class Lower(Func):
3744class Lower(Func):
3745    _sql_names = ["LOWER", "LCASE"]
class Map(Func):
3748class Map(Func):
3749    arg_types = {"keys": False, "values": False}
class VarMap(Func):
3752class VarMap(Func):
3753    arg_types = {"keys": True, "values": True}
3754    is_var_len_args = True
class MatchAgainst(Func):
3758class MatchAgainst(Func):
3759    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "modifier": False}
class Max(AggFunc):
3762class Max(AggFunc):
3763    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3764    is_var_len_args = True
class Min(AggFunc):
3767class Min(AggFunc):
3768    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
3769    is_var_len_args = True
class Month(Func):
3772class Month(Func):
3773    pass
class Nvl2(Func):
3776class Nvl2(Func):
3777    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
class Posexplode(Func):
3780class Posexplode(Func):
3781    pass
class Pow(Binary, Func):
3784class Pow(Binary, Func):
3785    _sql_names = ["POWER", "POW"]
class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
3788class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
3789    pass
class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
3792class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
3793    pass
class Quantile(AggFunc):
3796class Quantile(AggFunc):
3797    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True}
class Quantiles(AggFunc):
3802class Quantiles(AggFunc):
3803    arg_types = {"parameters": True, "expressions": True}
3804    is_var_len_args = True
class QuantileIf(AggFunc):
3807class QuantileIf(AggFunc):
3808    arg_types = {"parameters": True, "expressions": True}
class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
3811class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
3812    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True, "accuracy": False, "weight": False}
class RangeN(Func):
3815class RangeN(Func):
3816    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "each": False}
class ReadCSV(Func):
3819class ReadCSV(Func):
3820    _sql_names = ["READ_CSV"]
3821    is_var_len_args = True
3822    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
class Reduce(Func):
3825class Reduce(Func):
3826    arg_types = {"this": True, "initial": True, "merge": True, "finish": False}
class RegexpExtract(Func):
3829class RegexpExtract(Func):
3830    arg_types = {
3831        "this": True,
3832        "expression": True,
3833        "position": False,
3834        "occurrence": False,
3835        "group": False,
3836    }
class RegexpLike(Func):
3839class RegexpLike(Func):
3840    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
class RegexpILike(Func):
3843class RegexpILike(Func):
3844    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
class RegexpSplit(Func):
3849class RegexpSplit(Func):
3850    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
class Repeat(Func):
3853class Repeat(Func):
3854    arg_types = {"this": True, "times": True}
class Round(Func):
3857class Round(Func):
3858    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
class RowNumber(Func):
3861class RowNumber(Func):
3862    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
class SafeDivide(Func):
3865class SafeDivide(Func):
3866    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class SetAgg(AggFunc):
3869class SetAgg(AggFunc):
3870    pass
class SortArray(Func):
3873class SortArray(Func):
3874    arg_types = {"this": True, "asc": False}
class Split(Func):
3877class Split(Func):
3878    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
class Substring(Func):
3883class Substring(Func):
3884    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": False, "length": False}
class StrPosition(Func):
3887class StrPosition(Func):
3888    arg_types = {
3889        "this": True,
3890        "substr": True,
3891        "position": False,
3892        "instance": False,
3893    }
class StrToDate(Func):
3896class StrToDate(Func):
3897    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
class StrToTime(Func):
3900class StrToTime(Func):
3901    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
class StrToUnix(Func):
3906class StrToUnix(Func):
3907    arg_types = {"this": False, "format": False}
class NumberToStr(Func):
3910class NumberToStr(Func):
3911    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
class Struct(Func):
3914class Struct(Func):
3915    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
3916    is_var_len_args = True
class StructExtract(Func):
3919class StructExtract(Func):
3920    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
class Sum(AggFunc):
3923class Sum(AggFunc):
3924    pass
class Sqrt(Func):
3927class Sqrt(Func):
3928    pass
class Stddev(AggFunc):
3931class Stddev(AggFunc):
3932    pass
class StddevPop(AggFunc):
3935class StddevPop(AggFunc):
3936    pass
class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
3939class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
3940    pass
class TimeToStr(Func):
3943class TimeToStr(Func):
3944    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
3947class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
3948    pass
class TimeToUnix(Func):
3951class TimeToUnix(Func):
3952    pass
class TimeStrToDate(Func):
3955class TimeStrToDate(Func):
3956    pass
class TimeStrToTime(Func):
3959class TimeStrToTime(Func):
3960    pass
class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
3963class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
3964    pass
class Trim(Func):
3967class Trim(Func):
3968    arg_types = {
3969        "this": True,
3970        "expression": False,
3971        "position": False,
3972        "collation": False,
3973    }
class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3976class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
3977    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
3980class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
3981    pass
class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
3984class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
3985    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
3988class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
3989    pass
class Unhex(Func):
3992class Unhex(Func):
3993    pass
class UnixToStr(Func):
3996class UnixToStr(Func):
3997    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
class UnixToTime(Func):
4002class UnixToTime(Func):
4003    arg_types = {"this": True, "scale": False, "zone": False, "hours": False, "minutes": False}
4004
4005    SECONDS = Literal.string("seconds")
4006    MILLIS = Literal.string("millis")
4007    MICROS = Literal.string("micros")
class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
4010class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
4011    pass
class Upper(Func):
4014class Upper(Func):
4015    _sql_names = ["UPPER", "UCASE"]
class Variance(AggFunc):
4018class Variance(AggFunc):
4019    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE", "VARIANCE_SAMP", "VAR_SAMP"]
class VariancePop(AggFunc):
4022class VariancePop(AggFunc):
4023    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE_POP", "VAR_POP"]
class Week(Func):
4026class Week(Func):
4027    arg_types = {"this": True, "mode": False}
class XMLTable(Func):
4030class XMLTable(Func):
4031    arg_types = {"this": True, "passing": False, "columns": False, "by_ref": False}
class Year(Func):
4034class Year(Func):
4035    pass
class Use(Expression):
4038class Use(Expression):
4039    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
class Merge(Expression):
4042class Merge(Expression):
4043    arg_types = {"this": True, "using": True, "on": True, "expressions": True}
class When(Func):
4046class When(Func):
4047    arg_types = {"matched": True, "source": False, "condition": False, "then": True}
def maybe_parse( sql_or_expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], *, into: Union[str, Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Collection[Union[str, Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]], NoneType] = None, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, prefix: Optional[str] = None, copy: bool = False, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
4084def maybe_parse(
4085    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
4086    *,
4087    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
4088    dialect: DialectType = None,
4089    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
4090    copy: bool = False,
4091    **opts,
4092) -> Expression:
4093    """Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.
4094
4095    Example:
4096        >>> maybe_parse("1")
4097        (LITERAL this: 1, is_string: False)
4098        >>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
4099        (IDENTIFIER this: x, quoted: False)
4100
4101    Args:
4102        sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
4103        into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
4104        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
4105            input expression is a SQL string).
4106        prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed
4107            (automatically includes a space)
4108        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
4109        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4110            that an input expression is a SQL string).
4111
4112    Returns:
4113        Expression: the parsed or given expression.
4114    """
4115    if isinstance(sql_or_expression, Expression):
4116        if copy:
4117            return sql_or_expression.copy()
4118        return sql_or_expression
4119
4120    import sqlglot
4121
4122    sql = str(sql_or_expression)
4123    if prefix:
4124        sql = f"{prefix} {sql}"
4125    return sqlglot.parse_one(sql, read=dialect, into=into, **opts)

Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.

Example:
>>> maybe_parse("1")
(LITERAL this: 1, is_string: False)
>>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
(IDENTIFIER this: x, quoted: False)
Arguments:
  • sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
  • into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an input expression is a SQL string).
  • prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed (automatically includes a space)
  • copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case that an input expression is a SQL string).
Returns:

Expression: the parsed or given expression.

def union(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4271def union(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4272    """
4273    Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.
4274
4275    Example:
4276        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
4277        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
4278
4279    Args:
4280        left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
4281            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4282        right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
4283            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4284        distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
4285        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4286        opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4287    Returns:
4288        Union: the syntax tree for the UNION expression.
4289    """
4290    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4291    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4292
4293    return Union(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)

Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.

Example:
>>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
Arguments:
  • left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Union: the syntax tree for the UNION expression.

def intersect(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4296def intersect(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4297    """
4298    Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.
4299
4300    Example:
4301        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
4302        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
4303
4304    Args:
4305        left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
4306            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4307        right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
4308            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4309        distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
4310        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4311        opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4312    Returns:
4313        Intersect: the syntax tree for the INTERSECT expression.
4314    """
4315    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4316    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4317
4318    return Intersect(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)

Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.

Example:
>>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
Arguments:
  • left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Intersect: the syntax tree for the INTERSECT expression.

def except_(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4321def except_(left, right, distinct=True, dialect=None, **opts):
4322    """
4323    Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.
4324
4325    Example:
4326        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
4327        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
4328
4329    Args:
4330        left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
4331            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4332        right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
4333            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
4334        distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
4335        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4336        opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4337    Returns:
4338        Except: the syntax tree for the EXCEPT statement.
4339    """
4340    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4341    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4342
4343    return Except(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)

Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.

Example:
>>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
Arguments:
  • left (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • right (str | Expression): the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side. If an Expression instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
  • distinct (bool): set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • opts (kwargs): other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Except: the syntax tree for the EXCEPT statement.

def select( *expressions: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
4346def select(*expressions: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
4347    """
4348    Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.
4349
4350    Example:
4351        >>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
4352        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
4353
4354    Args:
4355        *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a
4356            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4357        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
4358            input expression is a SQL string).
4359        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4360            that an input expression is a SQL string).
4361
4362    Returns:
4363        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
4364    """
4365    return Select().select(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)

Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.

Example:
>>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an input expression is a SQL string).
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case that an input expression is a SQL string).
Returns:

Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.

def from_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Select:
4368def from_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> Select:
4369    """
4370    Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.
4371
4372    Example:
4373        >>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
4374        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
4375
4376    Args:
4377        *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a
4378            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4379        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
4380            input expression is a SQL string).
4381        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4382            that the input expression is a SQL string).
4383
4384    Returns:
4385        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
4386    """
4387    return Select().from_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)

Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.

Example:
>>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the input expression is a SQL string).
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case that the input expression is a SQL string).
Returns:

Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.

def update( table: str | sqlglot.expressions.Table, properties: dict, where: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType] = None, from_: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType] = None, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Update:
4390def update(
4391    table: str | Table,
4392    properties: dict,
4393    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4394    from_: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4395    dialect: DialectType = None,
4396    **opts,
4397) -> Update:
4398    """
4399    Creates an update statement.
4400
4401    Example:
4402        >>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
4403        "UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
4404
4405    Args:
4406        *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are
4407            auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
4408        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
4409        from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
4410        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
4411        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4412
4413    Returns:
4414        Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.
4415    """
4416    update_expr = Update(this=maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect))
4417    update_expr.set(
4418        "expressions",
4419        [
4420            EQ(this=maybe_parse(k, dialect=dialect, **opts), expression=convert(v))
4421            for k, v in properties.items()
4422        ],
4423    )
4424    if from_:
4425        update_expr.set(
4426            "from",
4427            maybe_parse(from_, into=From, dialect=dialect, prefix="FROM", **opts),
4428        )
4429    if isinstance(where, Condition):
4430        where = Where(this=where)
4431    if where:
4432        update_expr.set(
4433            "where",
4434            maybe_parse(where, into=Where, dialect=dialect, prefix="WHERE", **opts),
4435        )
4436    return update_expr

Creates an update statement.

Example:
>>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
"UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
Arguments:
  • *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
  • where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
  • from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.

def delete( table: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], where: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType] = None, returning: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType] = None, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Delete:
4439def delete(
4440    table: ExpOrStr,
4441    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4442    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
4443    dialect: DialectType = None,
4444    **opts,
4445) -> Delete:
4446    """
4447    Builds a delete statement.
4448
4449    Example:
4450        >>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
4451        'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
4452
4453    Args:
4454        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
4455        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
4456        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
4457        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4458
4459    Returns:
4460        Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.
4461    """
4462    delete_expr = Delete().delete(table, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
4463    if where:
4464        delete_expr = delete_expr.where(where, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
4465    if returning:
4466        delete_expr = delete_expr.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
4467    return delete_expr

Builds a delete statement.

Example:
>>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
Arguments:
  • where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
  • returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.

def condition(expression, dialect=None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Condition:
4470def condition(expression, dialect=None, **opts) -> Condition:
4471    """
4472    Initialize a logical condition expression.
4473
4474    Example:
4475        >>> condition("x=1").sql()
4476        'x = 1'
4477
4478        This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:
4479        >>> where = condition("x=1")
4480        >>> where = where.and_("y=1")
4481        >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
4482        'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
4483
4484    Args:
4485        *expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse.
4486            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4487        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
4488            input expression is a SQL string).
4489        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
4490            that the input expression is a SQL string).
4491
4492    Returns:
4493        Condition: the expression
4494    """
4495    return maybe_parse(  # type: ignore
4496        expression,
4497        into=Condition,
4498        dialect=dialect,
4499        **opts,
4500    )

Initialize a logical condition expression.

Example:
>>> condition("x=1").sql()
'x = 1'

This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:

>>> where = condition("x=1")
>>> where = where.and_("y=1")
>>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
Arguments:
  • *expression (str | Expression): the SQL code string to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the input expression is a SQL string).
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case that the input expression is a SQL string).
Returns:

Condition: the expression

def and_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.And:
4503def and_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> And:
4504    """
4505    Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.
4506
4507    Example:
4508        >>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
4509        'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
4510
4511    Args:
4512        *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4513            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4514        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4515        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4516
4517    Returns:
4518        And: the new condition
4519    """
4520    return _combine(expressions, And, dialect, **opts)

Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.

Example:
>>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

And: the new condition

def or_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Or:
4523def or_(*expressions, dialect=None, **opts) -> Or:
4524    """
4525    Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.
4526
4527    Example:
4528        >>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
4529        'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
4530
4531    Args:
4532        *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4533            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4534        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4535        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4536
4537    Returns:
4538        Or: the new condition
4539    """
4540    return _combine(expressions, Or, dialect, **opts)

Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.

Example:
>>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
Arguments:
  • *expressions (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Or: the new condition

def not_(expression, dialect=None, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Not:
4543def not_(expression, dialect=None, **opts) -> Not:
4544    """
4545    Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.
4546
4547    Example:
4548        >>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
4549        "NOT this_suit = 'black'"
4550
4551    Args:
4552        expression (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4553            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4554        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4555        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4556
4557    Returns:
4558        Not: the new condition
4559    """
4560    this = condition(
4561        expression,
4562        dialect=dialect,
4563        **opts,
4564    )
4565    return Not(this=_wrap_operator(this))

Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.

Example:
>>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
"NOT this_suit = 'black'"
Arguments:
  • expression (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Not: the new condition

def paren(expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Paren:
4568def paren(expression) -> Paren:
4569    return Paren(this=expression)
def to_identifier(name, quoted=None):
4585def to_identifier(name, quoted=None):
4586    """Builds an identifier.
4587
4588    Args:
4589        name: The name to turn into an identifier.
4590        quoted: Whether or not force quote the identifier.
4591
4592    Returns:
4593        The identifier ast node.
4594    """
4595
4596    if name is None:
4597        return None
4598
4599    if isinstance(name, Identifier):
4600        identifier = name
4601    elif isinstance(name, str):
4602        identifier = Identifier(
4603            this=name,
4604            quoted=not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(name) if quoted is None else quoted,
4605        )
4606    else:
4607        raise ValueError(f"Name needs to be a string or an Identifier, got: {name.__class__}")
4608    return identifier

Builds an identifier.

Arguments:
  • name: The name to turn into an identifier.
  • quoted: Whether or not force quote the identifier.
Returns:

The identifier ast node.

def to_interval( interval: str | sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> sqlglot.expressions.Interval:
4614def to_interval(interval: str | Literal) -> Interval:
4615    """Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'."""
4616    if isinstance(interval, Literal):
4617        if not interval.is_string:
4618            raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
4619
4620        interval = interval.this
4621
4622    interval_parts = INTERVAL_STRING_RE.match(interval)  # type: ignore
4623
4624    if not interval_parts:
4625        raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
4626
4627    return Interval(
4628        this=Literal.string(interval_parts.group(1)),
4629        unit=Var(this=interval_parts.group(2)),
4630    )

Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'.

def to_table( sql_path: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Table, NoneType], **kwargs) -> Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Table]:
4643def to_table(sql_path: t.Optional[str | Table], **kwargs) -> t.Optional[Table]:
4644    """
4645    Create a table expression from a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` sql path. Catalog and schema are optional.
4646    If a table is passed in then that table is returned.
4647
4648    Args:
4649        sql_path: a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` string.
4650
4651    Returns:
4652        A table expression.
4653    """
4654    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Table):
4655        return sql_path
4656    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
4657        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for a table: {type(sql_path)}")
4658
4659    catalog, db, table_name = (to_identifier(x) for x in split_num_words(sql_path, ".", 3))
4660    return Table(this=table_name, db=db, catalog=catalog, **kwargs)

Create a table expression from a [catalog].[schema].[table] sql path. Catalog and schema are optional. If a table is passed in then that table is returned.

Arguments:
  • sql_path: a [catalog].[schema].[table] string.
Returns:

A table expression.

def to_column( sql_path: str | sqlglot.expressions.Column, **kwargs) -> sqlglot.expressions.Column:
4663def to_column(sql_path: str | Column, **kwargs) -> Column:
4664    """
4665    Create a column from a `[table].[column]` sql path. Schema is optional.
4666
4667    If a column is passed in then that column is returned.
4668
4669    Args:
4670        sql_path: `[table].[column]` string
4671    Returns:
4672        Table: A column expression
4673    """
4674    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Column):
4675        return sql_path
4676    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
4677        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for column: {type(sql_path)}")
4678    return column(*reversed(sql_path.split(".")), **kwargs)  # type: ignore

Create a column from a [table].[column] sql path. Schema is optional.

If a column is passed in then that column is returned.

Arguments:
  • sql_path: [table].[column] string
Returns:

Table: A column expression

def alias_( expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], alias: str | sqlglot.expressions.Identifier, table: Union[bool, Sequence[str | sqlglot.expressions.Identifier]] = False, quoted: Optional[bool] = None, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **opts):
4681def alias_(
4682    expression: ExpOrStr,
4683    alias: str | Identifier,
4684    table: bool | t.Sequence[str | Identifier] = False,
4685    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
4686    dialect: DialectType = None,
4687    **opts,
4688):
4689    """Create an Alias expression.
4690
4691    Example:
4692        >>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
4693        'foo AS bar'
4694
4695        >>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
4696        '(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
4697
4698    Args:
4699        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
4700            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4701        alias: the alias name to use. If the name has
4702            special characters it is quoted.
4703        table: Whether or not to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
4704        quoted: whether or not to quote the alias
4705        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4706        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4707
4708    Returns:
4709        Alias: the aliased expression
4710    """
4711    exp = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
4712    alias = to_identifier(alias, quoted=quoted)
4713
4714    if table:
4715        table_alias = TableAlias(this=alias)
4716        exp.set("alias", table_alias)
4717
4718        if not isinstance(table, bool):
4719            for column in table:
4720                table_alias.append("columns", to_identifier(column, quoted=quoted))
4721
4722        return exp
4723
4724    # We don't set the "alias" arg for Window expressions, because that would add an IDENTIFIER node in
4725    # the AST, representing a "named_window" [1] construct (eg. bigquery). What we want is an ALIAS node
4726    # for the complete Window expression.
4727    #
4728    # [1]: https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/window-function-calls
4729
4730    if "alias" in exp.arg_types and not isinstance(exp, Window):
4731        exp = exp.copy()
4732        exp.set("alias", alias)
4733        return exp
4734    return Alias(this=exp, alias=alias)

Create an Alias expression.

Example:
>>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
'foo AS bar'
>>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
'(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
Arguments:
  • expression: the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • alias: the alias name to use. If the name has special characters it is quoted.
  • table: Whether or not to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
  • quoted: whether or not to quote the alias
  • dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Alias: the aliased expression

def subquery(expression, alias=None, dialect=None, **opts):
4737def subquery(expression, alias=None, dialect=None, **opts):
4738    """
4739    Build a subquery expression.
4740
4741    Example:
4742        >>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
4743        'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
4744
4745    Args:
4746        expression (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse.
4747            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
4748        alias (str | Expression): the alias name to use.
4749        dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
4750        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
4751
4752    Returns:
4753        Select: a new select with the subquery expression included
4754    """
4755
4756    expression = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts).subquery(alias)
4757    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)

Build a subquery expression.

Example:
>>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
Arguments:
  • expression (str | Expression): the SQL code strings to parse. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
  • alias (str | Expression): the alias name to use.
  • dialect (str): the dialect used to parse the input expression.
  • **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
Returns:

Select: a new select with the subquery expression included

def column( col: str | sqlglot.expressions.Identifier, table: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Identifier, NoneType] = None, db: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Identifier, NoneType] = None, catalog: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Identifier, NoneType] = None, quoted: Optional[bool] = None) -> sqlglot.expressions.Column:
4760def column(
4761    col: str | Identifier,
4762    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
4763    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
4764    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
4765    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
4766) -> Column:
4767    """
4768    Build a Column.
4769
4770    Args:
4771        col: column name
4772        table: table name
4773        db: db name
4774        catalog: catalog name
4775        quoted: whether or not to force quote each part
4776    Returns:
4777        Column: column instance
4778    """
4779    return Column(
4780        this=to_identifier(col, quoted=quoted),
4781        table=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted),
4782        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted),
4783        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted),
4784    )

Build a Column.

Arguments:
  • col: column name
  • table: table name
  • db: db name
  • catalog: catalog name
  • quoted: whether or not to force quote each part
Returns:

Column: column instance

def cast( expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression], to: str | sqlglot.expressions.DataType | sqlglot.expressions.DataType.Type, **opts) -> sqlglot.expressions.Cast:
4787def cast(expression: ExpOrStr, to: str | DataType | DataType.Type, **opts) -> Cast:
4788    """Cast an expression to a data type.
4789
4790    Example:
4791        >>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
4792        'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
4793
4794    Args:
4795        expression: The expression to cast.
4796        to: The datatype to cast to.
4797
4798    Returns:
4799        A cast node.
4800    """
4801    expression = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
4802    return Cast(this=expression, to=DataType.build(to, **opts))

Cast an expression to a data type.

Example:
>>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
Arguments:
  • expression: The expression to cast.
  • to: The datatype to cast to.
Returns:

A cast node.

def table_( table, db=None, catalog=None, quoted=None, alias=None) -> sqlglot.expressions.Table:
4805def table_(table, db=None, catalog=None, quoted=None, alias=None) -> Table:
4806    """Build a Table.
4807
4808    Args:
4809        table (str | Expression): column name
4810        db (str | Expression): db name
4811        catalog (str | Expression): catalog name
4812
4813    Returns:
4814        Table: table instance
4815    """
4816    return Table(
4817        this=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted),
4818        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted),
4819        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted),
4820        alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
4821    )

Build a Table.

Arguments:
  • table (str | Expression): column name
  • db (str | Expression): db name
  • catalog (str | Expression): catalog name
Returns:

Table: table instance

def values( values: Iterable[Tuple[Any, ...]], alias: Optional[str] = None, columns: Union[Iterable[str], Dict[str, sqlglot.expressions.DataType], NoneType] = None) -> sqlglot.expressions.Values:
4824def values(
4825    values: t.Iterable[t.Tuple[t.Any, ...]],
4826    alias: t.Optional[str] = None,
4827    columns: t.Optional[t.Iterable[str] | t.Dict[str, DataType]] = None,
4828) -> Values:
4829    """Build VALUES statement.
4830
4831    Example:
4832        >>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
4833        "VALUES (1, '2')"
4834
4835    Args:
4836        values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
4837        alias: optional alias
4838        columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types.
4839         If either are provided then an alias is also required.
4840         If a dictionary is provided then the first column of the values will be casted to the expected type
4841         in order to help with type inference.
4842
4843    Returns:
4844        Values: the Values expression object
4845    """
4846    if columns and not alias:
4847        raise ValueError("Alias is required when providing columns")
4848    table_alias = (
4849        TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias), columns=[to_identifier(x) for x in columns])
4850        if columns
4851        else TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias) if alias else None)
4852    )
4853    expressions = [convert(tup) for tup in values]
4854    if columns and isinstance(columns, dict):
4855        types = list(columns.values())
4856        expressions[0].set(
4857            "expressions",
4858            [cast(x, types[i]) for i, x in enumerate(expressions[0].expressions)],
4859        )
4860    return Values(
4861        expressions=expressions,
4862        alias=table_alias,
4863    )

Build VALUES statement.

Example:
>>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
"VALUES (1, '2')"
Arguments:
  • values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
  • alias: optional alias
  • columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types. If either are provided then an alias is also required. If a dictionary is provided then the first column of the values will be casted to the expected type in order to help with type inference.
Returns:

Values: the Values expression object

def var( name: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> sqlglot.expressions.Var:
4866def var(name: t.Optional[ExpOrStr]) -> Var:
4867    """Build a SQL variable.
4868
4869    Example:
4870        >>> repr(var('x'))
4871        '(VAR this: x)'
4872
4873        >>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
4874        '(VAR this: x)'
4875
4876    Args:
4877        name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
4878
4879    Returns:
4880        The new variable node.
4881    """
4882    if not name:
4883        raise ValueError("Cannot convert empty name into var.")
4884
4885    if isinstance(name, Expression):
4886        name = name.name
4887    return Var(this=name)

Build a SQL variable.

Example:
>>> repr(var('x'))
'(VAR this: x)'
>>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
'(VAR this: x)'
Arguments:
  • name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
Returns:

The new variable node.

def rename_table( old_name: str | sqlglot.expressions.Table, new_name: str | sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable:
4890def rename_table(old_name: str | Table, new_name: str | Table) -> AlterTable:
4891    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression
4892
4893    Args:
4894        old_name: The old name of the table
4895        new_name: The new name of the table
4896
4897    Returns:
4898        Alter table expression
4899    """
4900    old_table = to_table(old_name)
4901    new_table = to_table(new_name)
4902    return AlterTable(
4903        this=old_table,
4904        actions=[
4905            RenameTable(this=new_table),
4906        ],
4907    )

Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression

Arguments:
  • old_name: The old name of the table
  • new_name: The new name of the table
Returns:

Alter table expression

def convert(value) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
4910def convert(value) -> Expression:
4911    """Convert a python value into an expression object.
4912
4913    Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.
4914
4915    Args:
4916        value (Any): a python object
4917
4918    Returns:
4919        Expression: the equivalent expression object
4920    """
4921    if isinstance(value, Expression):
4922        return value
4923    if value is None:
4924        return NULL
4925    if isinstance(value, bool):
4926        return Boolean(this=value)
4927    if isinstance(value, str):
4928        return Literal.string(value)
4929    if isinstance(value, float) and math.isnan(value):
4930        return NULL
4931    if isinstance(value, numbers.Number):
4932        return Literal.number(value)
4933    if isinstance(value, tuple):
4934        return Tuple(expressions=[convert(v) for v in value])
4935    if isinstance(value, list):
4936        return Array(expressions=[convert(v) for v in value])
4937    if isinstance(value, dict):
4938        return Map(
4939            keys=[convert(k) for k in value],
4940            values=[convert(v) for v in value.values()],
4941        )
4942    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
4943        datetime_literal = Literal.string(
4944            (value if value.tzinfo else value.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)).isoformat()
4945        )
4946        return TimeStrToTime(this=datetime_literal)
4947    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
4948        date_literal = Literal.string(value.strftime("%Y-%m-%d"))
4949        return DateStrToDate(this=date_literal)
4950    raise ValueError(f"Cannot convert {value}")

Convert a python value into an expression object.

Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.

Arguments:
  • value (Any): a python object
Returns:

Expression: the equivalent expression object

def replace_children(expression, fun, *args, **kwargs):
4953def replace_children(expression, fun, *args, **kwargs):
4954    """
4955    Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.
4956    """
4957    for k, v in expression.args.items():
4958        is_list_arg = type(v) is list
4959
4960        child_nodes = v if is_list_arg else [v]
4961        new_child_nodes = []
4962
4963        for cn in child_nodes:
4964            if isinstance(cn, Expression):
4965                for child_node in ensure_collection(fun(cn, *args, **kwargs)):
4966                    new_child_nodes.append(child_node)
4967                    child_node.parent = expression
4968                    child_node.arg_key = k
4969            else:
4970                new_child_nodes.append(cn)
4971
4972        expression.args[k] = new_child_nodes if is_list_arg else seq_get(new_child_nodes, 0)

Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.

def column_table_names(expression):
4975def column_table_names(expression):
4976    """
4977    Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.
4978
4979    Example:
4980        >>> import sqlglot
4981        >>> column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e"))
4982        ['c', 'a']
4983
4984    Args:
4985        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression to find table names
4986
4987    Returns:
4988        list: A list of unique names
4989    """
4990    return list(dict.fromkeys(column.table for column in expression.find_all(Column)))

Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.

Example:
>>> import sqlglot
>>> column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e"))
['c', 'a']
Arguments:
  • expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression to find table names
Returns:

list: A list of unique names

def table_name(table) -> str:
4993def table_name(table) -> str:
4994    """Get the full name of a table as a string.
4995
4996    Args:
4997        table (exp.Table | str): table expression node or string.
4998
4999    Examples:
5000        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
5001        >>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
5002        'a.b.c'
5003
5004    Returns:
5005        The table name.
5006    """
5007
5008    table = maybe_parse(table, into=Table)
5009
5010    if not table:
5011        raise ValueError(f"Cannot parse {table}")
5012
5013    return ".".join(
5014        part
5015        for part in (
5016            table.text("catalog"),
5017            table.text("db"),
5018            table.name,
5019        )
5020        if part
5021    )

Get the full name of a table as a string.

Arguments:
  • table (exp.Table | str): table expression node or string.
Examples:
>>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
>>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
'a.b.c'
Returns:

The table name.

def replace_tables(expression, mapping):
5024def replace_tables(expression, mapping):
5025    """Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.
5026
5027    Args:
5028        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression node to be transformed and replaced.
5029        mapping (Dict[str, str]): mapping of table names.
5030
5031    Examples:
5032        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
5033        >>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
5034        'SELECT * FROM c'
5035
5036    Returns:
5037        The mapped expression.
5038    """
5039
5040    def _replace_tables(node):
5041        if isinstance(node, Table):
5042            new_name = mapping.get(table_name(node))
5043            if new_name:
5044                return to_table(
5045                    new_name,
5046                    **{k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if k not in ("this", "db", "catalog")},
5047                )
5048        return node
5049
5050    return expression.transform(_replace_tables)

Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.

Arguments:
  • expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression node to be transformed and replaced.
  • mapping (Dict[str, str]): mapping of table names.
Examples:
>>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
>>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
'SELECT * FROM c'
Returns:

The mapped expression.

def replace_placeholders(expression, *args, **kwargs):
5053def replace_placeholders(expression, *args, **kwargs):
5054    """Replace placeholders in an expression.
5055
5056    Args:
5057        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression node to be transformed and replaced.
5058        args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
5059        kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
5060
5061    Examples:
5062        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
5063        >>> replace_placeholders(
5064        ...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
5065        ...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
5066        ... ).sql()
5067        "SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
5068
5069    Returns:
5070        The mapped expression.
5071    """
5072
5073    def _replace_placeholders(node, args, **kwargs):
5074        if isinstance(node, Placeholder):
5075            if node.name:
5076                new_name = kwargs.get(node.name)
5077                if new_name:
5078                    return convert(new_name)
5079            else:
5080                try:
5081                    return convert(next(args))
5082                except StopIteration:
5083                    pass
5084        return node
5085
5086    return expression.transform(_replace_placeholders, iter(args), **kwargs)

Replace placeholders in an expression.

Arguments:
  • expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression node to be transformed and replaced.
  • args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
  • kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
Examples:
>>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
>>> replace_placeholders(
...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
... ).sql()
"SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
Returns:

The mapped expression.

def expand( expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sources: Dict[str, sqlglot.expressions.Subqueryable], copy: bool = True) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
5089def expand(
5090    expression: Expression, sources: t.Dict[str, Subqueryable], copy: bool = True
5091) -> Expression:
5092    """Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.
5093
5094    Examples:
5095        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
5096        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
5097        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
5098
5099        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
5100        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
5101
5102    Args:
5103        expression: The expression to expand.
5104        sources: A dictionary of name to Subqueryables.
5105        copy: Whether or not to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
5106
5107    Returns:
5108        The transformed expression.
5109    """
5110
5111    def _expand(node: Expression):
5112        if isinstance(node, Table):
5113            name = table_name(node)
5114            source = sources.get(name)
5115            if source:
5116                subquery = source.subquery(node.alias or name)
5117                subquery.comments = [f"source: {name}"]
5118                return subquery.transform(_expand, copy=False)
5119        return node
5120
5121    return expression.transform(_expand, copy=copy)

Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.

Examples:
>>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
>>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
Arguments:
  • expression: The expression to expand.
  • sources: A dictionary of name to Subqueryables.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
Returns:

The transformed expression.

def func( name: str, *args, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None, **kwargs) -> sqlglot.expressions.Func:
5124def func(name: str, *args, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs) -> Func:
5125    """
5126    Returns a Func expression.
5127
5128    Examples:
5129        >>> func("abs", 5).sql()
5130        'ABS(5)'
5131
5132        >>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
5133        'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
5134
5135    Args:
5136        name: the name of the function to build.
5137        args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
5138        dialect: the source dialect.
5139        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
5140
5141    Note:
5142        The arguments `args` and `kwargs` are mutually exclusive.
5143
5144    Returns:
5145        An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if `name` doesn't
5146        correspond to an existing `sqlglot.expressions.Func` class.
5147    """
5148    if args and kwargs:
5149        raise ValueError("Can't use both args and kwargs to instantiate a function.")
5150
5151    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import Dialect
5152
5153    converted = [convert(arg) for arg in args]
5154    kwargs = {key: convert(value) for key, value in kwargs.items()}
5155
5156    parser = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().parser()
5157    from_args_list = parser.FUNCTIONS.get(name.upper())
5158
5159    if from_args_list:
5160        function = from_args_list(converted) if converted else from_args_list.__self__(**kwargs)  # type: ignore
5161    else:
5162        kwargs = kwargs or {"expressions": converted}
5163        function = Anonymous(this=name, **kwargs)
5164
5165    for error_message in function.error_messages(converted):
5166        raise ValueError(error_message)
5167
5168    return function

Returns a Func expression.

Examples:
>>> func("abs", 5).sql()
'ABS(5)'
>>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
Arguments:
  • name: the name of the function to build.
  • args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
  • dialect: the source dialect.
  • kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
Note:

The arguments args and kwargs are mutually exclusive.

Returns:

An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if name doesn't correspond to an existing sqlglot.expressions.Func class.

def true():
5171def true():
5172    """
5173    Returns a true Boolean expression.
5174    """
5175    return Boolean(this=True)

Returns a true Boolean expression.

def false():
5178def false():
5179    """
5180    Returns a false Boolean expression.
5181    """
5182    return Boolean(this=False)

Returns a false Boolean expression.

def null():
5185def null():
5186    """
5187    Returns a Null expression.
5188    """
5189    return Null()

Returns a Null expression.